50b  BBS 


i  iiiil  I 


11 


FORGED     STEEL     WATER-TUBE 

MARINE    BOILERS 

Manufactured  by 

THE    BABCOCK   &   WILCOX    CO. 

NEW    YORK,    U.   S.   A. 


BABCOCK    &    WILCOX,    Limited 

LONDON,    ENGLAND 


HIGHEST    AWARD,     GRAND    PRIX,    EXPOSITION    UNIVERSAL 
PARIS,    1900 


r    T    -« 


SECOND  EDITION 

FIRST    ISSUE 


NEW    YORK    AI^Ip:..i'.qNDON 


Copyright  1914  r.v   Thf    Bahc<ick   &   Wii.cox  Co. 


Engineering 
Library 


JLU=iu_^-v^ 


mMm 


MAmNE 


wnnmL 


iingineering 
Library 


THE     BABCOCK     &     WILCOX     CO. 

85   LIBERTY  STREET,   NP:W  YORK,   U.  S.  A. 

WORKS:     BAYONNE,     NEW    JERSEY    AND     BARBERTON,     OHIO,    U.   S.   A. 

Directors 

EDWARD   II.   WELLS.  President  W.  D.  HOXIE.  Vice-President 

J.  G.  WARD.  Treasurer  E.  R.  STETTIXIUS.  .',/  Vice-President  F.  G.  BOURXE 

J.  E.  EUSTIS,  Secretary  O.  C.  BARBER  C.  A.  KNIGHT 

BRANCH  OFFICES: 

BOSTON:  35  Federal  Street  CHICAGO:   Marquette  Building 

PHILADELPHIA:   North  American  Building  ATLANTA,  GA.:   Candler  Building 

SAN  FRANCISCO:   99  First  Street  CLEVELAND:   New  England  Building 

PITTSBURGH:   Farmers  Deposit  Bank  Building  SEATTLE:   Mutual  Life  Building 

NEW   ORLEANS:   533  Baronne  Street  HAVANA,  CUBA:  Calle  de  Aguiar  104 

DENVER:   435  Seventeenth  Street  LOS  ANGELES:  Trust  Building 

SALT  LAKE  CITY:   705-6  Kearns  Building  CINCINNATI,   O.:   Traction  Building 

PORTLAND,   OREGON:   509  Spalding  Building  HOUSTON,  TEXAS:  Brazos  Hotel  Building 

TUCSON,   ARIZONA:   Santa  Rita  Hotel  Building  SAN  JUAN,  PORTO   RICO:   Tetuan  i 

BABCOCK     &     WILCOX,     LIMITED 

ORIEL    HOUSE,    FARRINGDON    STREET,    LONDON,    E.G. 

WORKS:    RENFREW,   SCOTLAND 

Directors 
JOHN  DEWRANCE.  Chairman  JAMES  H.  ROSENTHAL.  Managing  Director 

ARTHUR  T.  SIMPSON  F.  G.  BOURNE 

W.  D.  HOXIE  CHARLES  A.  KNIGHT 

WALTER  COLLS,  Secretary 

BRANCH  OFFICES  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN: 
GLASGOW:  29  St.  Vincent  Place  MIDDLESBROUGH:  The  Exchange 

BIRMINGHAM:   Winchester  House,  Victoria  Square  NEWCASTLE:   42  Westgate  Road 

CARDIFF:    129  Bute  Street  SHEFFIELD:    14  Bank  Chambers,  Fargate 

MANCHESTER:   30  Cross  Street  BELFAST:  Ocean  Buildings,  Donegal  Square,  E. 

OFFICES  ABROAD 

BOMBAY:   Wheeler's  Building,  Hornby  Road,  Fort  MEXICO:   22  and  23  Tiburcio 

BRUSSELS:    187  Rue  Royale  MILAN:   22  Via  Prmcipe  Umberto 

BILBAO:    i  Plaza  de  Albia  MONTREAL:    College  Street,  St.  Henry 

CALCUTTA:   Clive  Building  NAPLES:    107  Via  Santa  Lucia 

JOHANNESBURG:  Consolidated  Buildings  SHANGHAI:    la  Jinkee  Road 

LIMA:   Peru  SYDNEY:  427  and  429  Sussex  Street 

LISBON:   84  &  86  Rua  do  Commercio  TOKYO:  Japan 

MADRID:    i  Ventura  de  la  Vega  TORONTO:   Traders' Bank  Building 
MELBOURNE:   9  William  Street 

REPRESENTATIVES  AND  LICENSEES* 

ADELAIDE,  South  Australia:  Todd  &  Samuel  COLOMBO.  Cevlon:  Walker,  Soxs  &  Co.  Ltd. 

ATHENS,  Greece:   A.  D.  Zachariou  &  Co.  *COPENHAGEN,      Denmark:      Aktieselskaret 

AUCKLAND    New  Zealand:  John  Ch.\mbers  &  Sox,  Burmeister  &  Waix's  Maskix-og-Skibsbvgueri 

Ltd  *ESKILSTUNA,      Sweden:       Muxktells       Mek.vx- 

BAHIA.  Brazil:  Guixle  &  Co.  Verkst.\d  Aktiebolag 

BANGKOK.  Siam:  Howarth  Erskixe.  Ltd.  GIJON,  Spain:  Morgan  &  Elliot 

BARCELONA,  Spain:   Morgan  &  Elliot  *HELSINGF0RS,  Finland:  Maskin  &  Brobyggnads 

*BRUNN     Austria:     Erste     Brunner      Maschixen  Aktiebolaget 

Fabriks-Ges  *HEXGEL0.  Holland:  Gebr.  Stork  &  Co. 

*BUCHAREST  Roumania:"VuLCAx"  FabricadeMa-  KIMBERLEY.  South  Africa:   Reuxert  &  Lexz 

sixi  Soc  Axon    G.ara  Dealu  Spirsi-str.  Hoxzik.  MOSCOW.  Russia:  John  M.  Sumner  &  Co. 

■^BUDAPEST     Hungary:     Danubius     Schoexichex-  PERTH.  Western  Australia:   McLe.\x  Bros.  &  Rigg 

Hartmaxx  (Ganz  &  Co.)  *POLAND:  Deutsche  Babcock&  Wilcox-D.\mpfkes- 

BUENOS  AYRES,  Argentine  Republic:  AGAR  Cross  selwerke  Act.-Ges.:  i  Kaiser  Wilhel.msirasse. 

&  Co  Berlix 

CAIRO  EEVDt-  British  Exgineerixg  Co.  of  Egypt,  RANGOON.  Burma:  Irrawaddv  Flotilla  Co. 

Ltd  RIO  DE  JANEIRO.  Brazil:  Guinle  &  Co. 

{Alexander  Youxg  (London),  SMYRNA,  Asia  Minor:   Rankix  &  Dem.\s 

Ltd  SOURABAYA,     Java:      Fabriek    V.\x     Stoom-     en 

Beaver-Scott    Exgineerixg  Anderk  Werktuigen  •■  K.\limas  " 

Co    (Valparaiso)  ST.  PETERSBURG.  Russia:  John  M.  Sumner  &  Co. 

*CHRISTIANIA,  Norway:  A/S.  Thunes,  Mekaxiska-  TAMMERFORS.  Finland:  Sandm.^^x  &  Co. 

viRKSTED  THE  HAGUE,  Holland:   W.  Schlusen  &  Co. 

NOTE.  —  The  names  /narked  thus  *  are  those  of  the  Licensees. 


868799 


X    -i 


3      o 


INTRODUCTION 


IN  Engineering,  at  the  present  day,  there  are  three  vital  factors  to  excel- 
lence: strength,  efficiency,  economy;  and  the  owner  of  the  machine  or 
structure  who  has  learned  that "  the  engineer  is  the  man  who  can  make  a 
dollar  go  farthest "  is  just  as  much  interested  in  these  factors  as  the  en- 
gineer.    As  has  been  well  said,  "  the  ultimate  aim  of  nearly  all  engineering  work 
is  to  make  a  profit  for  the  user,  and,  however  admirable  otherwise,  if  it  fails 
in  this  respect,  it  is  an  engineering  failure,  just  as  much  as  a  break  down." 

The  object  of  this  catalogue  is  to  show  to  vessel  owners,  designing  en- 
gineers, and  naval  architects,  as  well  as  all  who  have  the  installation  and  care 
of  machinery,  that  the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  Marine  Boiler  fulfills  perfectly  the 
three  requirements  mentioned  above  as  well  as  the  many  others  demanded  of 
the  best  boiler;  and  that  its  use  will  give  the  most  complete  satisfaction 
to  the  designer  of  hull  and  machinery,  the  user  and  supervisor,  and  finally 
the  owner  by  a  greater  return  for  his  investment. 

In  early  editions  of  this  catalogue,  it  was  necessary  to  present  the 
merits  of  the  water-tube  boiler  as  an  argument,  because  not  many  were  in 
use,  and  the  installation  was  recent.  Now,  this  is  all  changed.  During  the 
past  fifteen  years,  nearly  three  million  horse-power  of  Babcock  &  Wilcox 
boilers  have  been  installed  in  naval  and  merchant  steamers  all  over  the 
world,  so  that  there  has  been  the  most  ample  opportunity  to  test  them  out 
in  every  way  and  under  all  conditions.  They  are  used  not  only  in  the 
dreadnoughts  and  fast  cruisers  of  the  navies  and  in  fast  mail  steamers,  but  in 
cargo  vessels,  ferry-boats,  fire-boats,  and  steam  whalers.  Their  economy 
and  efficiency  are  so  high  that  they  have  set  the  mark  which  no  other  boiler 
has  yet  attained.  In  some  cases  there  has  been  opportunity  for  direct 
comparison  with  Scotch  boilers  in  regular  service,  where  the  boilers  are  in 
identical  hulls  with  the  same  engines.  In  these  cases,  the  average  of  many 
voyages  over  the  same  route  has  shown  that  the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boilers 
are  decidedly  more  economical  in  fuel,  saving  more  than  ten  per  cent. 

The  features  of  safety  and  minimum  weight  for  very  high  pressures  com- 
mended them  for  naval  use  more  quickly  than  in  the  merchant  marine ;  but 
the  demand  for  great  power  to  give  high  speeds  has  made  the  designers 
of  the  latter  class  realize  that  they  cannot  afford  to  be  carrying  around 
hundreds  of  tons  uselessly  in  the  old  type  of  shell  boilers  which  might  be 
used  to  earn  money  by  carrying  cargo.  The  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boiler  is 
safer,  lighter,  easier  to  maintain,  much  more  nearly  immune  from  damage 
by  carelessness,  and  is  also  more  efficient  than  the  shell  boiler.  When 
vessel  owners  reaHze  these  facts  fully,  they  will  be  amazed  that  they  con- 
tinued to  use  the  old  type  of  heavy  and  less  efficient  boiler  so  long.  In  the 
fohowing  pages  will  be  found  complete  data  proving  all  these  statements 
and  showing  the  saving  by  the  use  of  the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boiler. 


A    BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE   WATER-TUBE    BOILER 


IN  1804,  about  a  century  ago,  Col.  John  Stevens  built  and  operated 
upon  the  Hudson  River  a  little  steamboat,  68  feet  long  by  14  feet 
wide. 

The  maehinery  of  this  vessel  consisted  of  a  single  upright  cylinder 
whose  piston  rod  moved  up  and  down  a  cross  head,  which  in  turn  drove  two 
cranks  by  means  of  connecting  rods.  From  the  cranks  a  pair  of  shafts  led 
aft,  and  were  fitted  with  twin  screws. 


MACHINERY  OF  STEVENS  BOAT,   1804 


Steam  was  supplied  by  one  water-tube  boiler,  containing  lOO  tubes,  2 


One  end  of  each  tube  was  fastened 


inches  in  diameter  and  1 8  inches  long, 
to  a  central  water  leg,  the  other 
end  being  closed.  The  hot  gases 
passed  around  these  tubes,  the  water 
being  inside  of  them.  This  vessel 
attained  a  speed  of  seven  miles  an 
hour  and  was  one  of  the  earliest 
examples  of  the  use  of  the  water- 
tube  boiler  for  marine  purposes.  stevens.  iso-i 

In  1805,  Stevens's  eldest  son,  John  Cox  Stevens,  realizing  the  disadvan- 


tages  of  a  boiler  containing  tubes  with  closed  ends,  patented  another  form  of 
water-tube  boiler,  which  he  described  as  follows:  *  "Suppose  a  plate  of  brass 
of  I  foot  square,  in  which  a  number  of  holes  are  perforated,  into  each  of 
which  holes  is  fixed  one  end  of  a  copper  tube  of  about  an  inch  in  diameter 
and  2  feet  long,  and  the  other  ends  of  these  tubes  inserted  in  like  manner 
into  a  similar  piece  of  brass;  the  tubes,  to  insure  their  tightness,  to  be 
cast  in  the  plates.  These  plates  are  to  be  enclosed  at  each  end  of  the 
pipes  by  a  strong  cap  of  cast-iron  or  brass,  so  as  to  leave  a  space  of  an 
inch  or  two  between  the  plates,  or  ends  of  the  pipes,  and  the  cast-iron  cap 
at  each  end.  The  caps  at  each  end  are  to  be  fastened  by  screw  bolts  pass- 
ing  through   them  into   the   plates.      The    necessary   supply   of  water  is 

to  be  injected,  by  means  of  a 
forcing  pump,  into  the  cap  at 
one  end ;  and  through  a  tube  in- 
serted into  the  ca])  at  the  other 
end,  the  steam  is  to  be  conveyed 
to  the  cylinder  of  the  steam 
engine.  The  whole  is  then  to 
be  encircled  in  brick  work  or 
masonry  in  the  usual  manner, 
placed  cither  horizontally  or 
perpendicularly,  at  option." 

The  circulation  was  therefore 
forced  or  maintained  by  the  feed 
pump,  the  steam  that  was  formed 
in  the  tubes  being  conducted 
from  the  opposite  space  to  the 
engine. 

vStevens  was  led  to  the  belief 
that  water-tube  boilers  embodied 
the  correct  principles  of  construc- 
tion, from  a  series  of  experiments  made  in  France  in  1790  by  M.  Balamour, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences.  Balamour  states :  * 
"It  has  been  found  that,  within  a  certain  range,  the  elasticity  of  steam  is 
nearly  doubled  by  every  addition  of  temperature  equal  to  30  degrees 
Fahrenheit.  These  experiments  were  carried  no  higher  than  280  degrees, 
at  which  temperature  the  elasticity  of  steam  was  found  equal  to  about 
four  times  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  By  experiments  which  have 
been  lately  made  by  myself,  the  elasticity  of  steam  at  the  temperature  of 
boiling  oil,  which  has  been  estimated  at  about  600  degrees,  was  found  to 
equal  forty  times  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  (600  pounds  to  the  square 
inch).     It  is  obvious  that  to  derive  advantages  from  an  application  of  this 


JOHN  cox  STEVENS,   1805 


"  Growth  of  the  Steam  Engine,"  Thurston. 


WILCOX,  1856 


principle,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  vessel  or  vessels  for  generating 
steam  should  have  sufficient  strength  to  withstand  the  great  pressure  from 
an  increase  of  elasticity  in  the 
steam,  but  this  pressure  is  increased 
or  diminished  in  proportion  to  the 
capacity  of  the  containing  vessel. 

"The  principle,  then,  of  this  in- 
vention consists  of  forming  a  boiler 
by  means  of  a  system  or  combination 
of  a  number  of  small  vessels,  instead 
of  using,  as  in  the  usual  mode,  one 
large  one;  the  relative  strength  of 
the  materials  of  which  these  vessels 
are  composed  increasing  in  proportion  to  the  diminution  of  capacity." 

Appreciating  the  advantages  to  be  gained  from  this  style  of  construc- 
tion, Stephen  Wilcox  in  1856  further  perfected  Stevens's  design  by  giving 
to  the  bank  of  tubes  an  inclination  and  placing  overhead  a  steam  and 
water  drum  which  connected  the  spaces  at  each  end  of  the  tubes.  The 
necessity  for  a  forced  circulation  was  at  once  overcome,  the  steam  and 
water  drum  forming  a  reservoir  of  sufficient  volume  to  maintain  a  steady 
water  line   and   give   dry   steam   for  the   engine. 

Late  in  the  sixties  Bab- 
cock  &  Wilcox  modified  the 
Wilcox  boiler  of  1856  (see 
Babcock  &  Wilcox,  1868). 
The  water  legs  were  removed 
and  brick  sides  substituted, 
the  steam  and  water  reservoir, 
being  replaced  by  a  cylindri- 
cal drum,  and,  to  simplify 
BABCOCK  &  WILCOX,  1868  dcsign,   the  tubes  were  made 

straight. 

Although  this  boiler  was  constructed  entirely  of  wrought-iron,  it  con- 
tained a  very  objectionable  feature — that  of  flat  stayed  surfaces  opposite 
the  tube  ends. 

To  avoid  the  use  of  such  stayed  surfaces,  the  now  well-known  seq^cn- 
tine  header  or  corrugated  manifold  was  substituted  in  1873.  These  headers 
were  first  made  of  cast-steel,  and  later  of  cast-iron.  They  separated  the 
tubes  into  sections,  faciHtated  examination  and  repair,  and  gave  to  the 
boiler  a  flexibility  to  permit  expansion  due  to  sudden  fluctuation  in 
temperature. 

In  a  boiler  designed  by  Babcock  &  Wilcox  in  1881,  the  longitudinal 
steam  and  water  drum  was  placed  crosswise   and  above  the    lower  end 


13 


BABCOCK  &   WILCOX,    1873 


of  the  bank  of  tubes,  the  steam  and  water  of  circulation  entering  the  drum 
at  the  water  Hne,  the  height  of  the  water  in  the  boiler  being  at  the  center 

line  of  the  drum. 

This  boiler  was  not  adopted  for 
stationary  use  until  the  latter  part  of 
the  eighties,  and  then  only  in  some 
European  countries.  Later,  with  some 
modifications,  it  has  been  extensively 
used  in  America  as  well  as  in  Europe, 
and  is  now  in  very  general  operation 
in  stationary  plants. 

The  design  was  compact,  and  the 
reduced  height  added  to  its  desirability  for  marine  work,  for  which 
purpose  it  was  adapted  by  The  Babcock  &  Wilcox  Company  in  1889. 
Short  tubes  were  sub- 
stituted for  long  ones, 
and  were  expanded  into 
forged  wrought-steel 
corrugated  headers,  or 
serpentine  manifolds, 
instead  of  headers  made 
of  cast  metal. 

Vertical  side  tubes, 
backed  with  light  fire 
tiles  and  sheet-iron 
casing,  were  substituted 
for  brick  setting,  and  the  general  structure  of  the  boiler  materially 
reduced  in  weight. 

In  1889,  a  boiler  of  this  design,  built  for  the  steam  yacht  "Reverie," 
was  made  entirely  of  forged  steel,  and  furnished  steam  at  225  pounds  pres- 
sure to  a  quadruple-expansion  engine  having  cylinders  8,  11,  i6J.^  and  26 
inches  in  diameter  by  12  inches  stroke.  The  boiler  contained  800 
square  feet  of  heating  surface  and  28  square  feet  of  grate,  the  engine 
easily  developing  250  indicated  horse-power. 

The  success  obtained  with  the  "Reverie"  boiler  warranted  the  con- 
struction, on  the  same  lines,  of  a  larger  boiler  having  2263  square  feet  of 
heating  surface  and  53  square  feet  of  grate.  This  boiler  was  sold  to 
Messrs.  Thomas  Wilson  &  Sons,  Hull,  England,  and  installed  in  1891 
in  their  S.  S.  "Nero."  The  engines  were  of  the  triple-expansion  type, 
with  cylinders  14,  24  and  39^2  inches  in  diameter  by  30  inches  stroke. 
Steam  of  200  pounds  pressure  was  furnished  by  the  boiler,  the  engine 
developing  500  indicated  horse-power. 

This  vessel  has  since  been  in  constant  service;  the  economy  and   re- 


mmsam 

BABCOCK  &  WILCOX.   1881 


U 


STEAM  YACHT  "  REVERIE  ' 


REVERIE  "  BOILER,  1SS9 


15 


liability  of  the   boiler  proving  so  satisfactory   to  the   owners   that  eight 
cargo  and  passenger  ships  have  since  been  fitted  for  this  firm. 

In    1892    a    boiler,   designed  to 
Hi^     *-^- — — ^  carry    250    pounds    steam    pressure, 

was  built  for  and  installed  in  the 
.steam  yacht  "  Trophy."  Both 
weight  and  space  were  saved  by  this 
change  and  the  speed  of  the  yacht 
materially  increased. 

In  1895  some  slight  changes 
were  made  in  the  construction  of  the 
Babcock  &  Wilcox  boiler  in  order 
to  increase  accessibility.  The  ver- 
tical side  tubes  were  replaced  by 
forged  steel  boxes  at  the  furnace 
sides,  with  tubes  above,  both  boxes 
and  tubes  being  incHned  the  same  as 
the  sections,  the  boiler  taking  the 
form  shown  in  the  cut.  (See  Bab- 
cock &  Wilcox,  1895,  opposite.) 

Two  boilers  of  this  design  were 

constructed    for    the    6000-ton  lake 

being   the  largest  at  that    time  ever 


BABCOCK  &   WILCOX.  ISM— PA  TEX  TED 


freighter  "Zenith-City,"    the  vessel 
built  on  fresh  water. 

The  engines  were  of  the  triple-expansion  type,  with  cylinders  22,  38 
and  63  inches  in  diameter  l)y  40  inches  stroke  of  piston.  These  sizes  were 
proportioned  to  economically  cxi)and  steam  of  225  jwunds  initial  pressure; 
this  pressure  being  50  i)oun(ls  in  excess  of  the  ordinary  practice  in  con- 
nection with  triple  engines. 

This  first  installation  of  water-tube  boilers  in  the  lake  trade  was  due 
to  the  progressiveness  of  Captain  A.  B.  Wolvin.  He  realized  the  full  value 
of  a  device  which  would  reduce  the  weight,  space  and  cost  of  operation 
of  the  machinery  i)lant  of  a  freight  steamer,  without  reduction  of  power. 
He  is  rightly  entitled  to  be  called  the  "pioneer"  in  the  use  of  high-pressure 
steam,  water-tul)e  boilers  and  quadruple-expansion  engines  in  cargo  steamers 
on  the  Great  Lakes,  and  has  proved  the  potency  of  these  factors  by  the 
great  success  with  which  large  cargoes  are  handled  in  these  waters. 

In  1896,  in  order  to  facilitate  general  operation  and  render  the  drum 
fittings  more  accessible,  the  boiler  was  reversed  in  its  relation  to  the 
fire-room,  or  stoked  from  the  opi)osite  end.  The  firing  doors  were  placed 
under  the  cross  box  forming  the  mud  drum,  or  blow-off  connection,  the 
location  of  the  steam  and  water  drum  being  at  the  front  of  the  boiler, 
immediately  overhead.     At  the  same  time  the  economizer  previously  located 


16 


(s  ^ 


17 


BABCOCK  &  WILCOX  "ALliRT"   DESIGN    MARINE  BOILER.     PATENTED 


i8 


in  the  up-take  was  abandoned,  and  its  equivalent  heating  surface  added  to 
that  in  the  boiler;  the  cost  of  up-keep  in  a  marine  boiler  economizer, 
due  to  its  inaccessible  situation  and  essen- 
tial piping,  valves,  etc.,  amounting  to 
more  than  the  advantages  derived  from 
its  use. 

In    1899    this    design   was    fur- 
ther improved  by  the  use 
of  longer  tubes,  increasing 
the  length  of  the  furnace, 
and  by  a   system    of  ver- 
tical baffles,  in  connection 
with    a   roof   of   light  fire 
tile    placed  on    the    lower 
row    of    tubes. 
This  arrangement 
of  heating  surface 
reduced      the 
height    of    the 
boiler,     increased 
the  furnace  capa- 
city and  permit- 
ted   thorough 
dusting     of     the 
tubes    without 
opening  the  tube  doors  at  the  front  or  rear. 

The  first  boilers  constructed  on  this  plan  were  built  tor  the  U.  S.  S. 
"Alert,"  and  installed  in  that  ship  at  Mare  Island  Navy  Yard.  California. 
Hence  the  design  is  known  as  the  "Alert"  design. 


BABCOCK  &  WILCOX, 
PATENTED 


1896 


19 


END   VIEW   OP   BABCOCK  &   WILCOX   MARINE  BOILER  SHOWING    CLEAXIXG    DOORS— PATENTED 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  BABCOCK  &  WILCOX  BOILER 


THE    construction    of    the   Babcock  &  Wilcox    marine    boiler    em- 
bodies the  same  well-known  principles  as  the  successful  land  or 
stationary    type;    freedom    of    circulation,    and    economy    when 
forcing,  being  important  factors  of  both  designs. 
The  tubes  forming  the  heating  surface  are  divided  into  vertical  sec- 
tions and,  to  insure  a  continuous  circulation  in  one  direction,  are  placed 
at  an  inclination  of  15  degrees  with  the  horizontal. 

By  distributing  the  surface  into  sec- 
tional elements,  all  danger  from  unequal 
expansion  due  to  raising  steam  quickly, 
or  to  sudden  cooling,  is  at  once  over- 
come. 

Each  section  is  made  up  of  a  series  of 
straight  tubes  expanded  at  their  ends 
into  corrugated  wrought-steel  boxes 
known  as  headers.  As  the  headers  are 
staggered,  the  tubes  are  so  disposed  that 
lanes  for  the  sudden  escape  of  the  pro- 
ducts of  combustion  are  prevented.  The 
hot  gases  are  therefore  completely  broken 
up  in  their  passage  across  the  heating 
surface. 

The  side  sections  are  continued  down 
to  the  level  of  the  grate,  the  tubes  be- 
ing replaced  by  forged  steel  boxes  of  6- 
inch  square  section  at  the  furnace  sides. 
These  boxes  are  located  one  above  the 
other  at  the  same  angle  as  the  tubes; 
they  take  the  place  of  brick  work; 
ensure  a  cool  side  casing;  prevent  the 
FORGED  STEEL  HEADER  adhcrcncc   of   clinkcrs,    and   are   of   suf- 

HAXDHOLE  COVERING   GROUP  OF  FOUR  ^    •       ^     ^i   •    1  ,  .    •,  -,      , 

2-iNCH  TUBES  Dcicnt  thickncss   to  withstand  the  wear 

and  tear  of  the  fire  tools. 

Extending  across  the  front  of  the  boiler  and  connected  to  the  upper 
ends  of  the  headers  by  4-inch  tubes,  is  a  horizontal  steam  and  water  drum 
of  ample  dimensions. 

As  the  upper  ends  of  the  rear  headers  are  also  connected  to  this  drum 
by  horizontal  4-inch  tubes,  each  section  is  provided  with  an  entirely  in- 
dependent inlet  and  outlet  for  water  and  steam. 

Placed  across  the  bottom  of  the  front  header  ends  and  connected 
thereto  by  similar  4-inch  tubes,  is  a  forged  steel  box  of  6-inch  square  sec- 


tion.  This  box,  situated  at  the  lowest  corner  of  the  bank  of  tubes,  forms 
a  blow-ofif  connection  or  mud  drum  through  which  the  boiler  may  be  com- 
pletely drained. 

The  circulation  of  the  water  is  as  follows:  Heat  being  applied  to  the 
inclined  tubes  and  vapor  formed,  the  water  and  steam  rise  to  the  high 
end  and  flow  through  the  up-take  headers  and  horizontal  return  tubes 
to  the  steam  and  water  drum,  the  path  of  both  water  and  steam  being 
short  and  direct ;  the  water  evaporated  in  the  tubes  and  that  carried  along 
by  the  currents  induced  by  the  steam  bubbles  being  replaced  by  water 
flowing  directly  from  the  bottom  of  the  drum  downward  through  the  front 
headers,  or  down-takes,  and  into  the  tubes,  part  of  this  water  to  be  in  turn 
evaporated. 

Upon  entering  the  drum  the  steam  and  circulating  water  are  directed 
against  a  baffle  plate,  which  causes  the  water  to  be  thrown  downward, 
while  the  steam  separates  and  passes  around  the  ends  of  the  baffle  plate 
to  the  steam  space,  from  which  it  is  conducted  by  a  perforated  dry  pipe 
to  the  stop  valve. 

By  a  roof  of  light  fire  tile,  supported  upon  the  lower  tubes  and  extend- 
ing part  way  over  the  furnace,  the  gases  evolved  from  fresh  fuel  are  compelled 
to  flow  toward  the  rear  of  the  boiler,  passing  over  an  incandescent  bed  of 
coals  and  under  the  hot  tile  roof. 

As  the  furnace  increases  in  height  approaching  the  bridge  wall,  the 
gases  have  both  space  and  time  in  which  to  mix  thoroughly  and  burn  be- 
fore entering  the  bank  of  tubes  forming  the  heating  surface.  By  this 
arrangement  a  high  furnace  temperature  is  established,  which  is  acknow- 
ledged by  all  authorities  to  be  the  essential  requirement  of  boiler  economy. 

The  circuitous  route  which  the  gases  are  compelled  to  follow,  in 
crossing  the  heating  surface  three  times  before  exit,  causes  them  to  impart 
to  the  tubes  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  heat. 

The  distance  traveled  by  the  products  of  combustion  in  contact  with 
the  heating  surface  is  about  sixteen  feet,  hence  good  economy  is  main- 
tained with  high  rates  of  combustion,  and  a  low  up-take  temperature  as- 
sured; the  interval  for  the  absorption  of  heat,  so  necessary  for  economy, 
being  longer  than  in  any  other  type  of  marine  water-tube  boiler.  The 
temperature  of  the  gases,  taken  at  different  places  in  their  path  to  the 
funnel,  will  be  found  under  "Tests  of  Babcock  &  Wilcox  Marine  Boilers." 

All  tubes  are  constructed  of  seamless  steel  and  are  extra  heavy. 
Opposite  the  end  of  each  tube  is  an  opening,  or  hand  hole,  in  the  header, 
through  which  the  tube  may  be  examined,  cleaned,  plugged  or  renewed; 
it  is  closed  by  a  forged-steel  plate  into  which  is  riveted  a  i-inch  stud. 
This  plate  is  faced,  and  is  drawn  to  a  faced  seat  by  a  forged-steel  bridge 
and  nut,  the  joint  being  made  on  the  inside  of  the  header,  by  means  of  a 
thin  gasket. 

23 


FRONT  VIEW-BABCOCK  &  WILCOX   BOILER 
Showing  Drum   Fittings— Patented 


24 


Should  a  tube  be  found  defective,  from  whatever  cause,  it  may  be 
renewed  or  temporarily  plugged,  as  both  ends  are  accessible.  All  necessary 
repairs  can  be  made  by  the  ship's  staff.  The  only  tools  recjuired  are  a 
ripping  chisel  and  an  ordinary  expander,  the  operation  of  which  is  familiar 
to  every  engineer. 

The  placing  of  the  steam  and  water  drum  horizontal  with  its  center  on 
the  water  line  of  the  boiler,  provides  a  large  body  of  water  where  it  is  most 
needed,  and  where  changes  in  the  volume  of  water  carried  least  affect  the 
levels  in  the  gauge  glasses. 

The  location  of  the  drum  at  the  front  of  the  boiler  renders  all 
valves  and  fittings  accessible  and  tends  to  shorten  steam  pipe  connec- 
tions. Main  stop  and  safety  valves,  stop  and  feed  check-valves  for  both 
main  and  auxiliary  feeds,  and  water  glasses,  are  flanged  directly  to  nozzles 
provided  with  counterbored  seats  and  riveted  to  the  drum  shell  or  heads. 
The  longitudinal  seams  are  butted  and  strapped,  and  have  from  four  to  six 
rows  of  rivets,  as  the  steam  pressure  requires.  Butt  straps  are  curved  to 
proper  radius  in  a  hydraulic  press. 


The  rivet  holes  are  drilled  after  the  rolled  plates  are  assembled;  the 
butt  straps  are  then  removed  from  the  drum  plates  and  all  burrs  cleaned 
off.     The  rivets  are  driven  by  hydraulic  pressure  and  held  until  cool. 


FORGED-STEEL  DRUM  HEAD 


The  drum  heads  are  formed  in  a  single  heat,  by  hydraulic  pressure, 
to  a  spherical  surface  whose  radius  is  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  shell. 
The  manhole  is  flanged  in  the  shell  plate,  or  drum  head,  with  a  stiffening 
ring  of  sufficient  thickness  to  form,  with  the  edge  of  the  plate,  a  seat  for 


25 


^¥m 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  SIDE  CASING- PATENTED 


26 


the   manhole   gasket    one  inch  wide.      The  manhole    plates  are   ii   x  15 
inches,  and  are  faced  to  a  true  oval  to  fit  the  manhole. 

Surrounding  the  pressure  parts,  and  firmly  bolted  to  the  foundation, 
is  a  structural  iron  framing  to  which  the  casing  plates  are  fastened. 

The  spaces  between  the  side  tubes  are  filled  with 
light  fire  tiles  made  of  highly  refractory  fire  clay. 
Against  these  are  placed  asbestos  mill-board  and  mag- 
nesia block  covering.  On  the  outside,  firmly  holding 
the  non-conducting  materials  in  position,  are  the 
casing  plates,  which  are  clamped  to  the  structural  fram- 
ing by  butt  straps.  This  method  of  fastening  allows  of  easy  removal, 
and  on  replacing  makes  an  air-tight  joint  without  the  use  of  additional 
packing.     The  efficiency  of  the  casing  is  demonstrated  by  the  fact  that 


-■*-^'^-  -**'  'S.^cikA^^. 


DUSTING  PAXEL— PATENTED 


CLEANING  PANEL— PATENTED 


the  hand  can  be  held  upon  the  side  of  the  boiler,  when  steaming,  without 
discomfort,  and  the  stoke  hold  is  always  cool. 

Hinged  to  the  framing  at  the  front  and  rear  of  the  boiler  are  large 
doors,  giving  access  to  the  hand-hole  plates  covering  the  tube  ends. 

Ample  means  are  provided  for  blowing  the  soot  from  the  exterior  of 
the  tubes.  A  steam  lance  may  be  inserted  through  small  dusting  doors 
empaneled  in  the  side  casing,  as  shown  above,  and  communicating 
with  the  spaces  between  the  rows  of  tubes.  Each  opening  is  covered 
by  a  shutter  sliding  vertically,  which  can  be  opened  and  shut  by  the 
lance.     As  the  seat  for  this  shutter   is   beveled,  it   tends   on   falling   to 


27 


wedge  itself  into  position,  thereby  making  an  air-tight  joint.  This  panel 
is  used  on  the  4-inch  tube  boilers.  On  the  2 -inch  tube  boilers,  this  panel 
is  embodied  in  a  swinging  door  as  shown  on  the  last  page. 

As  all  cleaning  of  soot  from  the  exterior  of  the  tubes  is  performed  from 
the  sides,  the  continuous  steaming  of  the  boiler  and  coaling  of  the  grates 
by  the  stokers  are  not  in  any  way  hindered. 


Method  of  Handling  a  Dabcock  &  Wilcox  Boiler  into  a  Steamer 


28 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  IDEAL  BOILER 

A  STEAM  boiler  is  an  apparatus  for  abstracting  the  heat  from  hot 
gases  and  transferring  it  to  water  so  as  to  form  steam  of  a  desired 
pressure.  The  hot  gases  are  supphed  by  the  combustion  of  fuel 
in  a  furnace.  Theoretically,  the  furnace  is  not  part  of  the  boiler, 
but  in  practice  it  is  generally  convenient  to  have  them  so  intimately 
associated  that  they  are  parts  of  the  same  structure. 

The  essential  part  of  the  boiler  is  the  heating  surface,  composed  of 
metal  sheets  in  plates  or  tubes,  with  the  hot  gases  on  one  side  and  the  water 
and  steam  on  the  other.  There  must,  of  course,  be  an  exit  for  the  waste 
gases  and  it  is  convenient  and  almost  universal  to  have  a  reservoir  for 
steam  and  water. 

The  efficiency  of  the  boiler  really  consists  of  two  factors,  the  efficiency 
of  the  furnace  and  that  of  the  heating  surface.  The  former  depends  upon 
a  proper  supply  of  air  and  its  intermixture  with  the  burning  fuel  so  as  to 
produce  perfect  combustion,  so  that  the  fuel  shall  all  have  been  gasified 
before  the  transmission  of  heat  to  the  water  begins.  This  involves  a 
commodious  chamber  in  which  the  gases  will  have  room  for  mixture  and 
preferably  with  non-conducting  sides.  This  last  is  not  possible  as  an 
entirety  in  usual  practice. 

The  efficiency  of  the  heating  surface  depends  chiefly  upon  the  proper 
circulation  of  the  water  and  the  hot  gases  with  reference  to  each  other,  and 
obviously  the  more  intimately  and  thoroughly  they  interpenetrate  each 
other,  the  greater  the  absorption  of  heat  and  the  higher  the  efficiency. 
A  little  thought  will  show  that  this  interpenetration  will  come  about  most 
thoroughly  when  one  of  the  fluids  passes  through  a  series  of  tubes. 

Although  apparatus  like  modern  water-tube  boilers  existed  nearly 
two  thousand  years  ago  (as  shown  by  the  excavations  at  Pompeii),  they 
seem  to  have  been  entirely  forgotten  and  the  evolution  of  the  steam 
boiler  started  from  the  humble  pot  or  kettle.  When  powers  were  small, 
pressures  low  and  weights  relatively  unimportant,  the  serious  and  in- 
herent defects  of  this  class  of  boiler  and  its  evolutionary  improvements 
were  not  clearly  seen,  but,  with  high  pressures  and  forced  combustion,  they 
were  brought  out  and  the  advantages  of  the  water-tube  boiler  commended  it. 
As  bearing  on  efficiency,  one  of  these  is  that,  nearly  all  the  heating  surface 
is  in  tubes,  and  they  can  be  so  disposed  with  reference  to  the  path  of  the 
gases  as  to  give  the  most  complete  interpenetration  of  the  two  fluids.  It 
would  be  anticipated  that  this  would  result  in  the  highest  efficiency,  and 
careful  tests  show  this  to  be  the  fact. 

AccessibiHty  for  cleaning  the  interior  and  exterior  surfaces  of  the 
tubes  is  most  important  for  efficiency  and  with  it  facility  for  removing 
and  replacing  a  tube  without  disturbing  others. 

29 


The  boiler  must  be  safe  against  disastrous  explosion.  The  water- 
tube  boiler  from  its  small  parts,  which  have  an  excess  of  strength,  and 
from  the  small  amount  of  contained  water,  possesses  this  feature  in  a  high 
degree. 

The  boiler  should  be  able  to  withstand  sudden  and  rapid  changes  of 
temperature.  This  means  that  its  parts  must  have  great  freedom  of 
expansion.  The  entire  lack  of  this  feature  is  one  of  the  great  drawbacks 
to  the  old-type  shell  boiler. 

The  boiler  should  be  rugged  or  robust,  that  is,  the  scantlings  of  its 
various  parts  should  be  adequate  to  enable  it  to  withstand,  uninjured,  the 
kind  of  treatment  a  boiler  is  sure  to  receive.  Certain  classes  of  water-tube 
boilers,  designed  for  extreme  lightness,  can  not  possess  this  feature,  and,  as 
they  were  first  in  the  marine  field,  many  engineers  have  supposed  that 
this  fragility  is  an  essential  of  water-tube  boilers.  Hiis  is  not  only  not 
true,  but  some  water-tube  boilers,  notwithstanding  their  much  less  weight, 
are  actually  more  robust  than  the  old-type  shell  boilers. 


1!m1'1'1:R   DKHLk.E    ■•ANTI'LKOX" 

Babcock  &  Wilcox  Boilers,  700  Indicated  Horse-power 

Owners:  New  South  Wales  Government 


30 


ADMIRAL  MELVILLE'S  LLST  OF  ESSENTIAL  CHARAC- 
TERISTICS OF  THE  IDEAL  WATER-TUBE  BOILER 

THE  late  Admiral  George  W.  Melville  was  Engineer-in-Chief  of  the 
United  States  Navy  from  1887  to  1903,  and  was  recognized 
throughout  the  world  as  one  of  the  foremost  leaders  of  the 
engineering  profession,  and  one  of  the  most  lucid  writers  on  en- 
gineering topics.  His  last  published  article  appeared  in  the  Erigineering 
Magazine  (New  York)  for  January,  1912,  and  was  entitled,  "The 
Development  of  the  Marine  Boiler  in  the  Last  Quarter  Century."  After 
reciting  his  study  of  water-tube  boilers  and  early  experience  with  them 
he  says: 

"From  my  study  of  the  subject,  I  had  reached  the  conclusion  that  the 
thoroughly  satisfactory  water-tube  boiler  should  possess,  among  others,  the 
following  characteristics : 

"Reasonable  lightness,  with  scantlings  sufficient  to  promise  reasonable 
longevity ; 

"An  adequate  amount  of  water,  so  that  failure  of  the  feed  supply  or  any 
inattention  thereto  would  not  immediately  cause  trouble ; 

"Accessibility  for  cleaning  and  repairs  on  both  water  and  fire  sides; 

"  Straight  tubes,  with  no  screw  joints  in  the  fire,  but  the  simple  expanded 
joints  so  well  tested  out  for  years; 

"No  cast  metal,  either  iron  or  steel,  subjected  to  pressure; 

"Ability  to  raise  steam  quickly; 

"High  economy  of  evaporation; 

"Econom)^  of  space; 

"  Interchangeability  of  parts,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  the  use  of  regular 
commercial  sizes,  so  that  repair  material  could  be  procured  an3'where ; 

"  The  ability  to  stand  severe  forcing  without  injury; 

"  The  ability  to  stand  abuse — that  is,  to  be  of  rugged  construction  and  not 
so  delicate  as  to  require  skilled  mechanics  to  run  it; 

"Safety  against  disastrous  explosion,  meaning  that  only  the  part  of  the 
boiler  which  gave  way  would  be  damaged." 

He  then  tells  of  making  several  installations  of  Babcock  &  V/ilcox 
boilers  and  of  the  "Alert "  design,  and  says  of  this,  "  To  my  mind  it  fulfilled 
almost  perfectly  my  list  of  characteristics  and  gave  a  \vater-tube  boiler 
about  as  good  as  we  are  hkely  to  get."  He  adds  later,  "Believing  that  I 
had  found  the  boiler  best  adapted  to  use  on  large  war  vessels,  and  con- 
firmed in  this  view  by  their  performance  in  service,  I  continued  to  install 
the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boiler  as  long  as  I  remained  Engineer-in-Chief,  and 
my  successors  have  done  the  same." 

We  will  now  go  over  to  the  Admiral's  list  in  detail  and  give  data 

31 


showing  how  thoroughly  the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boiler  fulfills  the  require- 
ments. 

REASONABLE  LIGHTNESS,  WITH  SCANTLINGS  SUFFICIENT  TO  PROMISE 
REASONABLE  LONGEVITY 

Table  I.  shows  the  weight  of  the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boiler  as  com- 
pared with  other  water-tube  boilers,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  for  the 
same  diameter  and  thickness  of  tubes  it  is  as  light  as  any.  It  is  very  im- 
portant to  note  that,  as  built  for  naval  vessels  and  mail  steamers,  its 
weight,  with  water,  for  250  lbs.  pressure  is  about  25  lbs.  per  square  foot 
of  heating  surface,  as  against  60  lbs.  for  naval  vessels  and  75  lbs.  for  mail 
steamers  using  cylindrical  or  Scotch  boilers  and  carrying  175  lbs.  pressure. 
(In  the  case  of  large  boilers,  arranged  for  oil-firing,  the  weight  is  below  20 
lbs.  per  square  foot  of  heating  surface.) 

At  the  same  time,  the  tubes  are  actually  thicker  than  in  Scotch 
boilers,  while  the  headers  are  as  thick  as  the  furnace  and  combustion 
chambers.  The  resistance  to  corrosion  and  corresponding  promise  of 
longevity  are  in  proportion  to  the  thickness. 

AN     ADEQUATE     AMOUXT     OF     WATER,     SO    THAT     FAILURE    OF    THE    FEED 
SUPPLY  OR  ANY  INATTENTION  THERETO  WOULD  NOT  IMMEDIATELY 

CAUSE  TROUBLE 

There  is  no  useless  water  in  the  boiler,  every  particle  being  in  active 
circulation.  Consequently,  although  the  weight  of  water  per  square  foot 
of  heating  surface  is  only  from  four  to  five  pounds,  the  amount  is  sufficient, 
when  carried  at  the  normal  level  (the  horizontal  diameter  of  the  drum),  to 
permit  the  operation  of  the  boiler  under  moderate  combustion  (15  to  20 
lbs.  of  coal  per  square  foot  of  grate)  for  a  period  of  twenty  to  thirty 
minutes  without  feed  before  the  water  falls  low  enough  to  cause  danger. 
This  should  not  encourage  carelessness  about  the  feed,  but  shows  that  the 
same  degree  of  care  that  is  adequate  for  Scotch  boilers  will  answer  for 
Babcock  &  Wilcox. 

ACCESSIBILITY  FOR  CLEANING  AND  REPAIRS  ON  BOTH  WATER  AND 

FIRE  vSIDES 

A  reference  to  the  detailed  cuts  and  description  of  the  boiler,  already 
given,  will  show  that  the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boiler  secures  this  condition 
perfectly.     It  may  be  added  that  no  other  boiler  does  or  can. 

STRAIGHT  TUBES,  WITH  NO  SCREW  JOINTS  IX  THL  FIRL,  BUT  THE  SIMPLE 
EXPANDED  JOINTS  SO  WELL  TESTED  OUT  FOR  YFARS 

This  is  one  of  the  special  characteristics  of  the  Babcock  &  W^ilcox 

32 


boiler.  In  conjunction  with  the  expanded  joints  and  the  headers,  with 
hand  holes  opposite  groups  of  tubes,  it  enables  any  tube  to  be  removed  and 
a  new  one  installed  without  disturbing  any  other. 

NO  CAST  METAL,  EITHER  IRON  OR  STEEL,  SUBJECTED  TO  PRESSURE 

The  tubes  are  of  seamless  steel ;  the  drums,  of  the  highest-grade  boiler 
plate.  The  headers  are  made  from  the  best  quality  of  open-hearth  flange 
plate  in  a  series  of  presses,  where  the  process  is  flanging  and  not  drawing. 
The  headers  are  the  backbone  of  the  boiler  and  it  may  be  asserted  with 
confidence  that  no  part  of  any  kind  of  steam  apparatus  is  made  of  better 
material  or  with  more  care.  Owing  to  process  of  manufacture,  all  the 
original  good  quality  of  the  plate  is  retained.  It  may  be  remarked  that 
tests  to  destruction  have  shown  the  headers  to  have  a  factor  of  safety  of 
more  than  ten  when  carrying  300  lbs.  pressure. 

ABILITY  TO  RAISE  STEAM  QUICKLY 

Repeated  tests  have  shown  that,  with  coal  fires,  steam  can  be  raised 
from  cold  water  (100  degrees  temperature)  to  a  pressure  of  200  lbs.  in 
about  fifteen  minutes.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  this  is  not  only  a  merit  as 
making  the  boiler  ready  for  quick  use  at  any  time,  but  it  is  the  strongest 
testimony  to  its  ability  to  stand  rapid  changes  of  temperature  and  its 
remarkable  elasticity  and  freedom  to  expand  and  contract.  It  would  be 
impossible  to  raise  steam  in  any  such  period  in  a  shell  boiler,  and  such  a 
boiler  would  be  quickly  ruined  if  steam  were  frequently  raised  in  even  a 
few  hours.  The  safety  with  which  steam  can  be  quickly  raised  in  the 
Babcock  &  Wilcox  boiler  gives  it  foremost  rank  as  a  Naval  boiler  and 
accounts  for  the  great  number  that  are  used  in  Naval  vessels  and  fireboats. 

HIGH  ECONOMY  OF  EVAPORATION 

This  is  a  point  of  great  importance  which  has  not  been  as  fully 
appreciated  as  it  should  be.  The  efficiency  of  the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boiler 
averages  about  ten  per  cent,  greater  than  that  of  well  designed  Scotch  boilers 
or  75%  against  65%,  with  coal  burned  at  moderate  rates.  The  efficiency 
with  oil  fuel  goes  as  high  as  80%. 

ECONOMY  OF  SPACE 

Here  again  the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boiler  takes  first  place.  Table  I. 
shows  a  comparison  w^ith  other  water-tube  boilers.  With  respect  to  Scotch 
boilers,  the  article  of  Admiral  Melville,  already  referred  to,  takes  the  case 
of  the  great  steamers  "Mauretania"  and  "Luistania,"  whose  space  for 
Scotch  boilers  is  340  feet  long  by  61  feet  wide,  and  shows  that,  disregarding 
their  superior  economy,  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boilers  burning  the  same  amount 

3  33 


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34 


of  coal  at  the  same  rate  (that  is,  with  the  same  grate  surface)  would  occupy- 
only  225  feet  by  61  feet,  a  saving  of  115  feet  in  length!  He  shows  also 
that  there  would  be  a  saving  of  about  2000  tons  in  weight! 

INTERCHANGEABILITY   OF    PARTS,  AND,  AS    FAR   AS   POSSIBLE,  THE  USE   OF 
REGULAR  COMMERCIAL  SIZES,  SO  THAT  REPAIR  MATERIAL  COULD  BE 

PROCURED  ANYWHERE 

The  tubes  which,  as  the  thinnest  part,  will  give  out  first  from 
corrosion,  are  of  standard  commercial  sizes  and  can  be  procured  anywhere. 
They  are,  indeed,  the  only  parts  which  will  require  renewal  if  any  decent 
care  is  given  to  the  boiler.  The  headers  are  carefully  made  to  template, 
and  the  tube-holes  and  hand-holes  are  made  to  jigs  on  special  machines  of 
the  very  highest  quality  so  that  they  are  absolutely  interchangeable.  If 
spares  are  needed,  they  can  be  ordered  with  the  assurance  that  they  will 
fit  perfectly.  The  recognized  standards  of  the  Government  and  of  the 
American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers  are  followed  as  to  bolts  and 
nuts,  flanges,  etc. 

THE  ABILITY  TO  STAND  SEVERE  FORCING  WITHOUT  INJURY 

From  the  freedom  for  expansion,  shown  by  the  ability  to  stand  raising 
steam  quickly,  it  would  be  anticipated  that  the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boiler  can 
stand  any  amount  of  forcing,  and  such  is  the  fact.  The  repeated  full  power 
trials  of  Naval  vessels,  where  the  combustion  is  at  the  rate  of  40  lbs.  of  coal 
per  hour  per  square  foot  of  grate,  have  shown  thoroughly  the  elasticity  of 
the  boiler.  Special  tests  at  almost  double  this  rate  with  coal  and  with  oil, 
lasting  several  hours,  give  an  unequalled  record.  Admiral  Melville  says  of 
the  coal  test:  "So  far  as  I  know,  this  is  the  highest  rate  of  combustion  with 
coal,  recorded  by  a  Board  independent  of  the  makers,  to  which  any  boiler  of 
the  water-tube  type  has  ever  been  subjected."  With  respect  to  the  oil  test 
he  says:  "Having  already  shown  what  the  boiler  could  do  with  intense 
combustion  of  coal,  a  similar  experiment  was  made  with  oil,  when  a  rate  of 
slightly  over  i  pound  of  oil  per  square  foot  of  heating  surface  was  used  with 
an  evaporation  of  almost  16  pounds  of  water  per  square  foot  of  heating 
surface.  The  Board  (of  Naval  officers)  state  in  their  report  that  this  is 
the  highest  rate  of  driving  of  which  they  could  find  any  record.  They 
also  state  that,  although  this  boiler  had  been  subjected  to  the  severe  tests 
under  coal  and  to  continuous  experimental  trials  with  oil  before  their  own, 
it  showed  no  signs  of  distress  in  any  way." 

THE  ABILITY  TO  STAND  ABUSE— THAT  IS,  TO  BE  OF  RUGGED  CONSTRUCTIOxN 
AND  NOT  SO  DELICATE  AS  TO  REQUIRE  SKILLED  MECHANICS  TO  RUN  IT 

As  has  already  been  stated,  the  scantlings  of  the  pressure  parts,  tubes, 
headers,  and  drums   of  the   Babcock  &  Wilcox   boiler  are  as  great  as  or 

35 


36 


greater  than  those  of  Seotch  boilers,  whieh  seem  to  be  the  usual  criterion 
of  ruggedness.  In  addition,  the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boiler  will  stand  "heat 
abuse" — that  is,  rapid  changes  of  temperature,  without  any  bad  effect, 
which  would  quickly  ruin  a  Scotch  boiler. 

SAFETY  AGAINST  DISASTROUS  EXPLOSION,  MEANING  THAT  ONLY  THE  PART 
OF  THE  BOILER  WHICH  GAVE  WAY  WOULD  BE  DAMAGED 

Where  a  boiler  is  well  designed  and  properly  built  of  good  materials, 
there  should  never  be  an  explosion  if  even  a  minimum  of  attention  to 
cleanliness,  corrosion,  and  water  level  is  given.  The  records  of  explosions 
show  that,  in  good  boilers,  they  are  invariably  due  to  carelessness  and 
neglect  of  some  kind. 

It  has  been  thoroughly  established  that  the  destructive  force  in  an 
explosion  comes  from  the  large  body  of  water  at  a  high  temperature  which 
flashes  into  steam  when  an  initial  rent  or  fracture  occurs.  In  the  case  of 
shell  boilers,  it  is  common  to  find  the  enclosing  building  demolished  and 
parts  of  the  boiler  projected  a  great  distance. 

Sectional  water-tube  boilers  contain  a  very  small  quantity  of  water 
and  this  is  distributed  among  a  large  number  of  containers  of  small 
capacity.  Consequently,  there  is  no  large  mass  of  water  to  flash  into 
steam.  If  a  rupture  of  a  tube  occurs,  the  steam  is  all  discharged  through 
the  opening,  without  damage  to  other  parts.  The  relative  safety  of  the 
two  types  of  boilers  is  shown  in  a  marked  way  by  the  fact  that,  in  some 
States,  only  water-tube  boilers  are  permitted  in  school  buildings. 

Experience  has  shown  that  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boilers  have  worked 
without  failure  when  the  tubes  were  coated  with  scale  or  with  grease,  but 
such  a  course  is  to  be  strongly  deprecated.  The  boiler  is  designed  to  work 
with  water  and  with  reasonably  clean  heating  surface. 


37 


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40 


DREDGES   FITTED  WITH  WATER-TUBE   BOILERS 


PERHAPS  in  no  other  industry  is  the  underlying  prineiple  of  com- 
mercial efficiency  so  slightly  defined  and  unrecognizable  as  in  the 
work  of  dredging.  The  number  of  hands  required  to  operate  the 
dredge  is  relatively  small;  and,  unlike  the  power  plant  of  a  large  mill 
or  factory,  when  the  plant  shuts  down  few  people  are  rendered  idle.  Delay 
results  in  no  damage  to  the  material  and  the  work  can  be  taken  up  again 
at  leisure  when  repairs  or  overhauls  are  finished. 

It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  that  in  the  minds  of  many  designers  of 
dredging  installations  "first  cost"  assumes  overwhelming  consideration. 
With  them  it  is  not  a  question  of  how  continuously  the  plant  is  to  be  kept 
in  operation,  but  of  how  cheaply  it  can  be  built.  Second-hand  machinery 
is  often  used  and  there  is  no  type  of  steam  generator  that  cannot  get  a  trial, 
provided  it  can  be  purchased  for  little  money. 

And  yet,  on  the  other  hand,  in  no  other  industry  is  the  saying  "Time 
is  money"  so  forcibly  true  as  it  is  in  dredging.  Particularly  in  the  light 
of  active  competition  in  bidding  for  contracts,  the  operator  who  makes 
his  plant  pay  the  largest  return  on  the  investment  is  he  who  keeps  his  dredge 
ceaselessly  at  work  at  Jiill  capacity,  days  and  nights,  one  hundred  and  sixty- 
eight  hours  a  week.  An  inconspicuous  lack  in  steaming  ability,  slightly 
fewer  revolutions  per  minute  and  slightly  fewer  cubic  yards  per  hour  will, 
in  the  aggregate,  mean  the  loss  of  many  thousands  of  dollars;  and  a  brief 
shut-down  for  renewal  or  repairs  may  offset  many  times  over  a  very  con- 
siderable difference  in  first  cost. 

Ample  steam  capacity  and  economy  of  fuel  are  very  vital  features  to 
be  considered  in  the  building  of  a  dredge,  and  the  value  of  a  durable, 
dependable  boiler  that  will  keep  things  moving  all  the  time  at  full  power 
cannot  properly  be  figured  at  so  many  cents  per  pound. 

To  supply  a  suitable  boiler  for  dredges,  both  stationary  and  those  of 
the  self-propelling,  hopper  type,  a  special  class  of  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boiler 
has  been  designed  possessing  features  which  specially  commend  it  for  this 
class  of  work. 

The  illustrations  show  a  sectional  side  view  and  a  perspective  view  of 
such  a  boiler,  from  which  it  will  be  noted  that,  in  its  general  characteristics, 
it  is  similar  to  the  usual  "Alert"  design  of  Marine  Boiler,  that  is  the  boiler  is 
fired  from  the  low  end  and  there  is  the  same  system  of  baffling.  The 
tubes,  however,  are  all  4  inches  in  diameter  No.  8  B.  W.  G.  (0.165")  thick 
and  of  much  greater  length.  This  is  usually  12  feet  but  may  be  made  14 
feet  where  special  circumstances  require  it.  It  will  be  noted  also  that  the 
usual  water-boxes  on  the  sides  have  been  omitted  and  are  replaced  by 
brickwork. 

This  boiler  has  the  same  large  furnace,  increasing  in  volume  towards 

41 


the  bridgewall,  and,  like  the  Alert  design,  is  equally  adapted  to  burning 
coal  or  oil  fuel. 

This  boiler  is  of  unusually  robust  construction  and  can,  therefore,  be 
depended  upon  for  thorough  reliability  under  the  trying  conditions  which 
usually  obtain  upon  dredges. 

As  will  be  seen  by  the  following  illustrations  and  descriptions,  boilers 
of  this  class  have  been  extensively  used  and  have  given  great  satisfaction. 


BABCOCK  &  WILCOX  DREDGE  BOILER— PATENTED 
Longitudinal  Section 


42 


.--•^^SiH- 


BABCOCK  &   WILCOX   DREDGE   BOILER-PATENTED 


43 


44 


RUvSSIAN  GOVERNjMENT  DREDGES  FIRED  WITH  NAPHTHA 

A  novel  feature  in  the  dredges  shown  in  the  accompanying  photograph, 
which  have  been  built  by  Messrs.  La  Societe  Anonyme  John  Cockerill  of 
Seraing,  for  the  Russian  Government,  is  the  installation  of  water-tube 
boilers.     These  are  of  the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  marine  type,  and  have  given 

on  the  trials  very  great  satisfaction. 


U.  S.  ARMY  DREDGE  "  NEW  ORLEANS  ■'—BABCOCK  &  WILCOX  BOILERS,  3000  I.  H.  P 

There  are  four  of  these  boilers  on  each  hull  half,  making  eight  in  all, 
having  a  total  heating  surface  of  17,200  square  feet.  In  addition  to  this, 
a  small  boiler  of  the  same  construction  is  fitted  in  a  stern-wheel  steamer, 
which  is  to  act  as  a  workshop  and  general  tender  to  the  dredge;  this 
boiler  has  1000  square  feet  of  heating  surface. 

On  the  Russian  official  trials,  which  took  place  on  the  24th  to  29th  of 
May,  1900,  the  boilers  worked  throughout  without  a  hitch,  giving  an  abund- 
ance of  perfectly  dry  steam.  On  the  full  power  trial,  with  all  the  machinery 
running,  no  trouble  was  experienced  in  keeping  the  water  level  constant,  or  in 
getting  a  sufficiency  of  steam,  although  working  at  a  very  high  rate  of  evapora- 
tion, which  would  be,  judging  from  the  indicated  horse-power  of  the  engine, 
nearly  8  pounds  of  water  per  square  foot  of  heating  surface  per  hour. 

On  the  stern- wheel  steamer,  with  the  boiler  of  1000  square  feet  heating 
surface,  the  boiler  was  forced  to  about  double  its  rated  capacity. 


45 


The  boilers  are  fired  exclusively  with  naphtha;  there  are  four  burners 
fitted  to  each  boiler  in  the  dredge,  and  two  to  the  boiler  in  the  stern 
wheeler. 

The  burners  are  made  so  as  to  swivel  out  from  the  furnace  when 
requiring  to  be  cleaned  or  examined.  The  spraying  of  the  petroleum  into 
the  furnace  is  accomplished  by  a  jet  of  steam.  The  oil  by  this  means  is 
atomized  and  made  ready  for  combustion.     The    temperatures  taken  of 


DREDGE  ••  LYONS" 

Working  on    New  York   Statk  Bakck  Canal.     Owners:  Crowell,  Sherman,  Stalter  Co.     Babcock 

&  Wilcox  Boilers,  2000  I.  H.  P. 

the  funnel  gases  showed  these  to  be  very  low,  /.  c,  not  more  than  about 
500  degrees  F. 

One  of  the  advantages  derived  from  the  use  of  these  boilers  is  the  small 
amount  of  weight,  as  compared  with  ordinary  boilers.  The  weight  of  the 
four  boilers  on  one  hull  half,  complete  in  working  order  with  funnel,  up- 
takes, and  all  accessories,  was  .02  tons  per  indicated  horse-power  developed 
on  the  trial. 


46 


FUEL— ITS  COMBUSTION  AND    ITS  HEAT  VALUE 

THE  term  "fuel,"  in  its  widest  sense,  may  mean  any  substance 
which,  by  its  combination  with  oxygen,  evolves  heat.  It  is 
generally  applied,  however,  to  those  substances  which  are  in 
common  every-day  use  for  heat-producing  purposes. 

Coal  is  the  fuel  most  extensively  used,  and  while  saw-dust,  rice-chaff, 
bagasse,  wood,  etc.,  are  not  uncommon  fuels  for  making  steam  on  land,  coal 
is  practically  the  only  solid  fuel  that  need  be  considered  in  marine  practice. 

The  nature  and  cjuality  of  coal,  in  point  of  view  of  its  heating  value, 
vary  considerably.  It  is  a  fossil  of  vegetable  origin,  and  the  difference 
in  its  nature  is  attributed  to  the  variation  in  its  origin.  Coal  from  the 
same  stratum  does  not  vary  in  its  nature  or  characteristics,  and  generally 
these  characteristics  are  the  same  in  a  certain  district,  hence  the  district 
from  which  a  certain  coal  is  obtained  usually  determines  its  commercial 
designation. 

Coal  is  divided  into  two  main  classes — anthracite  and  bituminous. 

"Anthracite"  is  a  word  of  Greek  origin,  meaning  "carbon"  or 
"coke,"  the  fuel  being  so  named  probably  because  it  is  that  which  con- 
tains the  largest  percentage  of  fixed  carbon. 

"Bituminous"  is  of  Latin  origin,  meaning  "containing  or  resembling 
bitumen." 

There  are  various  degrees  in  the  nature  of  these  coals,  which  may  be 
enumerated  as  follows:  Anthracite,  or  hard  coal;  semi-anthracite;  semi- 
bituminous;  bituminous,  or  soft  coal;  and  lignite. 

Pure  anthracite  coal — which  is  said  to  be  the  oldest  and  deepest 
formation — is  found  principally  in  the  United  States  of  America.  It  is 
also  found  in  the  western  part  of  the  South  Wales  coal  fields;  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Swansea;  in  some  parts  of  Scotland;  to  a  small  extent  in 
France;  in  the  South  of  Russia;  and  in  the  Osnabriick  district  of  Westphalia, 
Germany. 

Semi-anthracite  coal  closely  resembles  anthracite  in  its  physical 
characteristics  and  appearance,  but  contains  less  fixed  carbon  and  burns 
more  freely.  It  is  represented  by  what  is  known  as  "Welsh  anthracite," 
and  by  coals  from  a  limited  territory  in  Pennsylvania. 

Semi-bituminous  coal  is  most  largely  represented  by  the  "Cardiff" 
or  "Welsh"  coals  from  the  enormous  fields  of  South  Wales,  and  in  the 
United  States  by  the  rich  deposits  on  the  slope  of  the  Appalachian  Moun- 
tains, extending  from  Clearfield  County,  Pa.,  to  the  southern  boundary  of 
Virginia,  the  coals  in  this  belt  taking  the  names  of  "  Pocahontas,"  "  George's 
Creek,"  "Clearfield,"  etc.  The  Belgium  coal,  known  as  "Demigras,"  is 
also  of  this  class. 

Bituminous  coal  is  found  almost  all  over  the  world.     The  largest  known 

47 


L 


LU-_._..Jl^ L    .^ILiL. 


48 


fields,  generally  speaking,  are  in  Scotland,  England  and  the  United  States. 
It  is  found  in  less  quantity,  in  Germany  in  the  Ruhr  district,  in  West- 
phalia and  Silesia,  in  the  north  of  France,  Austria,  Russia,  China,  Japan, 
India,  Australia,  New  Zealand  and  Canada. 

"Cannel"  coal,  a  variety  of  bituminous  coal,  is  found  in  the  Midlands 


itt^ 

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Copyright  by  N.  L.  Stebbins 

UNITED  STATES  ARMORED  CRUISERS— "  MONTANA"  AND  "NORTH   CAROLINA" 
Babcock  &  Wilcox  Boilers,  31,000  I.  H.  P. 


of  England  and  in  the  United  States.  It  is  used  principally  for  making 
illuminating  gas  and  for  domestic  purposes. 

The  principal  lignite  fields  are  in  France,  Italy,  Germany  and  Austria, 
but  Hgnite  is  also  found  in  the  United  States  and  in  Sweden. 

The  theoretical  heating  value  of  fuel  is  the  heat  which  it  develops 
w^hen  consumed  under  theoretically  correct  conditions — which  are  practi- 
cally only  obtained  in  the  laboratory — and  it  is  expressed  in  heat  units  or 
thermal  units.  In  England  and  the  United  States  of  America  the  British 
thermal  unit  is  adopted,  this  being  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  the 
temperature  of  one  pound  of  water  one  degree  Fahrenheit. 

On  the  Continent  of  Europe  the  "calorie"  is  used,  and  the  standard 


49 


50 


is  the  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  one  kilogram  of  water 
one  degree  Centigrade. 

To  convert  calories  per  kilogram  of  coal  into  British  thermal  units  per 
pound  of  coal,  multiply  by  1.8. 

The  theoretical  heating  value  of  the  above-mentioned  coals  varies 
betv/een  7000  and  15,500  British  thermal  units  per  pound,  depending  largely 
on  the  varying  amounts  of  incombustible  matter  or  ash  that  the  coals 
contain. 

The  semi-bituminous  coals  of  the  Pocahontas  and  Cardiff  varieties 
are  the  most  uniform  in  this  respect,  the  ash  being  only  3  to  8  per  cent.; 
Belgian  "Demigras"  will  run  from  5  to  15  per  cent.,  while  the  residue 
in  Transvaal  coal  may  reach  25  to  35  per  cent. 

The  anthracite  coals,  as  mined,  contain  from  15  to  30  per  cent,  of 
refuse  or  slate.  Most  of  this,  however,  is  usually  removed  when  the  coal 
is  prepared  for  the  market,  so  that  anthracite,  as  sold,  may  contain  as  little 
as  3  per  cent.  On  the  other  hand,  the  smaller  sizes  may  run  very  high  in 
ash,  and  cases  have  been  known  where  50  per  cent,  refuse  has  been  found 
in  boiler  tests. 

Bituminous  coals  are  extremely  variable,  running  from  5  to  35  per 
cent,  ash,  while  the  percentage  in  lignite  is  usually  considerably  under  10. 

The  heat  value  of  the  combustible  portion  of  the  coal  (ash  and 
moisture  deducted)  is  also  quite  variable,  and  depends  on  the  quality 
of  the  volatile  matter,  which  may  be  either  very  rich  in  h3'drocarbons,  as 
in  semi-bituminous  coals,  or  comparatively  high  in  oxygen,  as  in  many  of 
the  bituminous  coals  and  lignite.  So  much,  in  fact,  does  the  amount  of 
oxygen  found  in  lignite  detract  from  the  calorific  value  of  the  volatile 
matter,  that  the  combustible  portion  of  lignite  is  worth  only  about  three- 
fourths  that  of  semi -bituminous  coal. 

APPROXBIATE  CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION  OF  SEVERAL  TYPICAL  KINDS  OP 

SOLID  FUELS 


Wood,  perfectly  dry 

Wood,  ordinary 

Peat 

Charcoal , 

Straw 

Coal,  anthracite 

Coal,  semi -bituminous 

Coal,  bituminous,  Pittsburg  .  .  . 
Coal,    bituminous,    Hocking    Val 

ley,  O 

Coal,  bituminous,  Illinois  .  .  .  . 
Brown  coal,  Pacific  coast  .  .  .  . 
Lignite,  Pacific  coast 


Moisture 

Carbon 

Hydrogen 

0 

50 

6.0 

20.0 

40 

4.8 

30.0 

40.6 

4.2 

12.0 

84 

I.O 

16.0 

36 

50 

I.O 

86 

I.O 

I.O 

84 

4.2 

14 

75 

5-0 

7-5 

67 

4.8 

I  I.O 

56 

50 

16.8 

50 

3-8 

14.0 

55 

4.0 

O.xygen 

Xitrogen 

Sulphur 

41-5 

1.0 

33-2 

0.8 

21.7 

0 

38.0 

I.O 

0-5 

0.5 

34 

0.8 

0.6 

8.0 

I.O 

1.6 

10. 0 

1.2 

1-5 

1 1.0 

I.O 

30 

13-6 

0.9 

15.0 

I.O 

I.O 

1-5 
1.2 

3-5 
3-0 
5-0 
10. o 
6.0 
8.0 

8.0 
13.0 
13.2 

50 


51 


^  ^ 


u 

5   I 


52 


The  elements  in  the  coal  from  which  we  derive  heat  are  carbon  in 
its  sohd  state,  hydrogen,  and  sometimes  a  Httle  sulphur.  The  hygro- 
scopic water  which  it  contains  is  injurious,  as  it  absorbs  heat  for  its  own 
evaporation. 

The  heat  value  of  the  fuel  may  be  calculated  from  the  analysis  by 
means  of  Dulong's  formula,  as  follows:  B.T.U,  per  pound  equal 

146  C+620  (H-JO)  +  40  S 

in  which  C,  H,  0  and  S  are,  respectively,  the  percentages  of  carbon, 
hydrogen,  oxygen  and  sulphur  in  the  fuel,  and  the  constants  are  the  most 
recent  average  heat  values  for  carbon,  hydrogen  and  sulphur,  each  divided 
by  100. 

The  actual  heating  value  of  a  coal,  as  determined  by  test  with  an  in- 
strument known  as  a  "bomb  calorimeter"  (see  page  71),  agrees  very 
closely  with  that  calculated  from  the  analysis,  usually  within  2  per  cent., 
when  both  the  analysis  and  the  calorimeter  test  are  made  by  a  skilled 
chemist. 

The  analyses  given  in  the  foregoing  table  are  called  "ultimate  analyses," 
since  the  constituents  of  the  fuel,  except  the  moisture  and  ash,  are  re- 
duced to  the  ultimate  chemical  elements.  Another  kind  of  analysis,  called 
"proximate  analysis,"  is  more  commonly  used,  which  separates  the  coal 
into  four  parts,  viz. :  moisture,  volatile  matter,  fixed  carbon  and  ash. 

The  proximate  analysis  is  of  great  value  for  indicating  the  general 
character  of  a  coal.  By  dividing  the  percentages  of  volatile  matter  and 
fixed  carbon  each  by  their  sum,  we  obtain  the  percentages  of  each  in  the 
"combustible,"  or  coal  dry  and  free  from  ash.  These  percentages  serve 
to  identify  the  class  to  which  the  coal  belongs,  as  follows: 


Class  of  Coal 

Fixed  Carbon 
per  cent,  of 
Combustible 

Volatile  Matter 
per  cent,  of 
Combustible 

Anthracite 

Semi-anthracite 

100  to  92 
92  to  87 
87  to  75 
75  to  50 

below  50 

0  to    8 

8  to  13 

13  to  25 

25  to  50 

over  50 

Semi-bituminous 

Bituminous ... 

Lignite 

These  various  kinds  of  coal  act  very  differently  during  their  com- 
bustion in  a  furnace,  and  to  get  the  best  results  each  must  be  handled  in 
the  way  best  suited  to  its  characteristics;  and  the  size  and  design  of  the 
furnace  must   also  be  adapted  to  the  particular  requirements  of  the  coal. 

With  anthracite  coal  disintegration  and  distillation  take  place  very 
slowly,  with  semi-bituminous  coal   they  take    place  somewhat  faster,  and 


53 


54 


with  bituminous  coal  almost  instantaneously,  the  rate  depending  on  the 
percentage  of  fixed  carbon. 

For  the  combustion  of  one  pound  of  carbon  2.66  pounds  of  oxygen 
are  necessary,  and  as  the  air  contains  only  23  per  cent,  of  oxygen,  it 
follows  that  1 1 .6  pounds  of  air  are  necessary  for  the  combustion  of  one 
pound  of  carbon. 

The  air  required  for  combustion  in  a  boiler  furnace  has  to  pass 
through  the  spaces  between  the  grate  bars,  and  the  layers  of  fuel  on  them, 
the  rapidity  with  which  it  passes  through  depending  on  the  intensity  of 
the  draft  and  condition  of  the  fire. 

When  the  fuel  is  supplied  in  too  great  a  quantity,  or  the  supply  of 
air  is  insufficient,  the  carbonic  acid,  formed  in  the  lower  layers  of  the  fuel, 
takes  up  another  portion  of  carbon  in  the  upper  layers,  and  forms  carbonic 
oxide  or  carbon  monoxide,  which  passes  through  the  boiler  unconsumed, 
and  frequently  re-ignites  at  the  top  of  the  funnel,  where  it  comes  into 
contact  with  sufficient  air  to  enable  its  combustion  to  be  completed.  Thus, 
flaming  at  the  top  of  the  funnel  or  in  the  flues  beyond  the  boiler,  is  gener- 
ally a  sure  sign  of  unsatisfactory  conditions  of  combustion. 

Anthracite  coal,  and  coke,  may  be  called  comparatively  slow  com- 
bustion fuels,  and  to  provide  that  a  certain  quantity  shall  be  consumed  for 
a  given  size  of  boiler,  either  the  grate  surface  must  be  increased,  as  com- 
pared with  bituminous  coal,  or  the  intensity  of  the  draft — in  other  words, 
the  velocity  of  the  air  supply — must  be  increased.  From  this  arises  the 
fact  that  when  burning  anthracite  coal  in  a  boiler  furnace  proportioned 
for  bituminous  coal,  either  an  extra  high  funnel  is  required,  or  an 
artificial  method  of  intensifying  the  draft  commonly  called  "forced  draft," 
must  be  used. 

Anthracite  and  semi-anthracite  are  the  coals  for  which  it  is  easiest  to 
design  a  suitable  furnace,  and  experience  has  shown  that  with  all  types  of 
boilers,  for  these  fuels  the  plain  level  grate  is  the  most  practical;  it  is  the 
cheapest  in  up-keep,  and  it  requires  the  least  skill  on  the  part  of  the  fireman. 

Naturally,  the  size  of  lump,  the  percentage  of  ash,  the  rate  of  com- 
bustion required  and  the  strength  of  draft,  determine  such  details  as  width 
of  bar,  extent  of  grate  surface,  form  of  bar,  and  size  of  air  opening. 

With  semi-bituminous  coal,  ow4ng  to  its  larger  percentage  of  volatile 
matter  and  the  rapidity  with  which  this  infiammable  gas  is  distilled  off, 
more  space  must  be  provided  in  the  furnace  and  care  taken  to  prevent 
the  burning  gases  coming  in  contact  with  the  boiler  heating  surface  and 
being  cooled  before  combustion  is  complete. 

These  points  are  still  further  accentuated  in  relation  to  bituminous 
coal  and  lignite,  and  neglect  to  observe  their  importance  leads  to  great 
loss  in  the  use  of  these  fuels. 

The  best  methods  of  handling  semi-bituminous  coal  and  the  bitumin- 

55 


ous  coals  having  the  larger  percentage  of  fixed  carbon,  is  to  fire  it  on  the 
front  end  of  the  grate,  where  it  is  "coked,"  the  volatile  gases  passing  back 
over  the  incandescent  fuel  and  burning  completely  before  touching  the 
heating  surface.  The  coke  left  on  the  front  is  then  pushed  back  and  a 
fresh  charge  of  coal  fired. 

With  the  very  volatile  bituminous  coals  and  lignite,  it  is  impossible  to 
handle  the  fuel  in  this  way,  as  it  does  not  coke  and  has  a  tendenc}'  to 
form  bad  and  troublesome  clinker  when  worked  with  the  fire  tools.  This 
fuel  should  be  spread  in  very  light  charges  evenly  from  the  front  to  the 
back,  covering  each  half  of  the  grate  alternately. 

Semi-bituminous  and  the  coking  variety  of  bituminous  coal  may  also 

be  fired  in  this  way  with  no 
loss  in  economy  if  the  firing 
is  skillful. 

The  method  of  firing 
and  the  design  of  the  fur- 
nace have  a  material  effect 
on  the  production  of  smoke ; 
but  it  may  be  mentioned 
that  while  smoke  is  an  in- 
dication that  the  conditions 
of  combustion  are  suscep- 
tible of  improvement,  an 
absence  of  smoke  is  not  by 
any  means  a  sure  sign  of 
proper  combustion,  for  it 
may  be  brought  about  by 
too  much  air  being  supplied, 
and  consequent  dilution  of 
the  gases;  nor  is  the  pro- 
duction of  smoke  by  any  means  an  indication  that  much  waste  takes 
place,  for  the  quantity  of  unconsumed  carbon  sufficient  to  color  the 
escaping  gases  from  a  boiler  is  an  exceedingly  small  percentage  of  the  total 
amount  of  fuel. 

The  Babcock  &  Wilcox  Marine  Boiler,  here  illustrated,  is  the  best 
of  all  water-tube  boilers,  so  far  designed,  for  obtaining  a  high  efficiency 
with  bituminous  coals. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  gases  evolved  from  the  fuel,  pass  under  the 
roof  located  over  the  front  portion  of  the  lowest  row  of  tubes,  to  a  high  com- 
bustion chamber  at  the  rear,  and  are  thoroughly  mixed  and  burned  before 
entering  the  bank  of  tubes  forming  the  heating  surface. 

Generally  speaking,  with  this  boiler  and  with  careful  firing  and 
favorable  conditions,  from    70  to  75   per  cent,  of  the   heat  units    which 


RTLETT  4  CO  ,  N.Y.  | 


56 


a  coal  is  found  to  contain  theoretically,  can  be  transferred  to  the  water 
and  steam.  Claims  have  been  made  that  more  than  this  can  be  obtained — 
up  to  80  per  cent. — with  certain  classes  of  boilers;  we  do  not  wish  to  dispute 
the  possibility  of  obtaining  this,  but  certainly  it  is  only  obtainable  under 
conditions  which  are  so  carefully  studied  as  to  be  impracticable  or  im- 
possible to  maintain  in  ordinary  practice.  The  remaining  30  to  25  per  cent,  is 
lost  in  radiation,  in  the  heat  carried  away  in  the  waste  gases,  and  in  im- 
perfect combustion,  due  either  to  unavoidable  excess  of  air  in  the  furnace, 
or  to  a  lack  of  sufficient  air,  depending  upon  the  furnace  conditions.  A 
greater  proportion  of  the  heat  can  usually  be  saved  and  utilized  when 
anthracite  and  semi-bituminous  coals  are  employed.  And  as  the  volatile 
matter  in  the  fuel  increases,  the  greater  becomes  the  probable  loss  from 
incomplete  combustion. 

Higher  evaporative  efficiencies  can  generally  be  obtained  from  water- 
tube  boilers  than  from  shell  boilers,  for  the  reason,  principally,  that  in  the 
former  there  are  furnaces  which  are  capacious,  and  in  which  combustion 
takes  place  more  quickly  than  in  the  furnaces  of  shell  boilers,  where  not  only  is 
the  space  for  combustion  confined,  but  the  fuel  surrounded  by  cool  boiler  surface. 


STEAM  WHALER  "  MARY   D.  HUME"  IN  THE  ARCTIC 

Owners:    Pacific    Steam    Whaling    Co.     (From    "  The  Frozen   Northland  "  by 

WiNFiELD  Scott  Mason,  by  Courtesy  of  the  Author.)     Babcock  & 

Wilcox  Boiler,  400  I.  H.  P. 


57 


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58 


HEAT   VALUES  OF  COAL 


B.T.U.  PER  POUND  OF  DRY  COAL— CALORIES  PER  KILO.  DRY  COAL 

UNITED  STATES 


Name  and  Locality 
of  Mine 


Alabama: 
Blue  Creek,  mine  run. 
Henry  Ellen,  lump    . 

Mary  Lee 

Pratt,  lump     .... 
Old  Pratt,  No.  4,  lump 

Arkansas: 

Coal  Hill 

Eureka 

Lignite 

Colorado: 
Diamond, Jerome  Park 
New  Caste,  mine  run 

Illinois: 

Paisley,  screenings 
Pana,  screenings  .  . 
Big  Muddy,  lump 
Ladd,  lump  .... 
Staunton,  lump  .  . 
Seatonville,  lump  .  . 
Streator,  lump  .  .  . 
Streator,  screenings  . 
Wilmington,      screen 

ings 

Wilmington,       washed 

screenings   .... 

Indiana: 
Brazil,  block  .... 
New  Pittsburg    .     .     . 
Brazil,  semi-block  .    . 

Indian  Territory: 

McAleester,  slack  .    . 
McAleester         washed 

slack 

Krebs,  lump    .... 

Kentucky: 

Vanderpool,  lump .     . 

Maryland: 
George's  Creek  .    .    . 

Eureka 

Cumberland,  mine  run 
Cumberland,  mine  run 

Missouri: 

Hamilton 

Frontenac,  lump    .    . 
Glen  Oak 


B.T.U. 


11931 
13608 
13314 
12835 
14580 


13452 
12254 
921S 


13103 
12069 


10942 
10565 
13400 
12450 
11508 
12000 
12600 
12200 

97SO 

I3I00 


13629 
12369 
12500 


10903 
12874 


I4216 
13652 
13660 
I43I3 


I1662 

9743 
9767 


Calo- 
ries 


6628 
7560 
7397 
7131 
8100 


7473 
6808 
5119 


7280 
6705 


Authority 


7444 
6917 
6393 
6667 
7000 
6778 

S417 
6722 


7572 
6872 
6944 


5840 


6057 
7152 


7898 


6479 
5413 
5426 


W.  B.  Phillips 
The  B.  &  W.  Co. 


I  St.  Louis  Sampling 

5      Works 

B.  &.  W.,  Ltd. 


I  Carpenter 


f^ll  I  1  The  B.  &.  W.  Co. 


>  Carpenter 


I  Noyes,  McTaggart 
(      and  Craven 
Carpenter 


St.  Louis  Sampling 
Works 


Carpenter 

i  Barrus 

[TheB.  &  W.  Co. 


Forsyth 

I  St.  Louis  Sampling 

(      Works 


Name  and  Locality 
of  Mine 


Ohio: 

Brier  Hill,  lump.  .  . 
Jackson,  lump    .    .    . 

Cambridge 

Hocking  Valley,  lump 
Hocking  Valley,   mine 

run 

Palestine  .... 
Salineville  .... 
Yellow  Creek.  .  . 
Waterford  .... 

Pennsylvania: 

Anthracite 

Buck  Mountain,  buck- 
wheat   

Cross  Creek    .... 

Honey  Brook     .    .    . 

Avondale 

Drifton,  buckwheat  . 

Lackawanna   .... 

Lykens  Valley,  buck- 
wheat   

Scranton  Forty  Foot. 

Bituminous 

Connelsville  .... 
Duquesne,  mine  run. 

Catsburg 

eaver  Creek      .     .     . 

Carnegie 

Creedmore      .... 

Hoytdale 

Turtle  Creek  .  .  . 
Pittsburg,     nut        and 

slack 

Youghiogheny    .     .     . 

Tennessee: 

Glen  Mary 

Crooked  Fork     .    .    . 

Virgini.a.    and    West 
Virginia: 

Elk  Garden  .... 
Pocahontas,  Flat  Top 
Pocahontas,  mine  run 

Thacker       

Fairmont,  mine  run 
New  River,  mine  run 
Nuttalburg,  mine  run 
Thermont,  mine  run 


B.T.U. 

Calo- 

ries 

13600 

7SS6 

13613 

7563 

13075 

7264 

13102 

7279 

12571 

6984 

13387 

7437 

13464 

7480 

13603 

7557 

13637 

7576 

12308 

6838 

11520 

6400 

11732 

6518 

13219 

7344 

13722 

7623 

12371 

6873 

1 1902 

6612 

130S0 

7250 

13683 

7602 

14285 

7936 

13858 

7699 

13450 

7472 

14047 

7804 

13640 

7578 

13403 

7446 

13547 

7526 

13280 

7378 

12941 

7190 

12542 

6968 

12542 

6968 

13180 

7322 

14800 

8222 

I43S5 

7975 

14182 

7879 

13830 

7683 

14488 

8049 

14800 

8222 

14352 

7973 

Authority 


Carpenter 

The  B.  &  W.  Co. 


>-  Lord  &  Haas 


The  B.  &  W.  Co. 
!•  Barrus 


Carpenter 


D.  Ashworth 
( Woodman 

Lord  &  Haas 

I  The  B.  &  W.  Co. 
C  Barrus 


Anonymous 
The  B.  &  W.  Co. 


Barrus 

The  B.  &  W.  Co. 

[Lord  &  Haas 

i  The  B.  &  W.  Co. 


ENGLAND,  GERMANY,  FRANCE,  BELGIUM,  AND  AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


Coals,  Locality  of 
Beds 

B.T.U. 

Calo- 
ries 

Nature 

Coals,  Locality  of 
Beds 

B.T.U. 

Calo- 
ries 

Nature 

GREAT  BRITAIN 
welsh  coals 

Ebbw  Vale,  1848   .     . 
Powell  Duffryn,  1848 
Llangennech,  1848     . 
Llangennech,   1871     . 
Graigole,  1848    .     .     . 
Nixon's  Navigation  . 

16214 
15715 
14998 
14964 
14689 
15000 

8998 
8710 
8318 
8305 
8152 
8325 

)  Almost    pure    an- 
L       thracites,    hav- 
f       ing    84   to   89% 
J       of  carbon 

GREAT    BRITAIN 

continued 
Gwaun  Cae  Gurwen. 

Newcastle 

Derbyshire  and  York- 
shire    ...... 

Lancashire      .... 

Scotch      

15123 

14820 

13860 
13918 
12870 

8402 

8225 

7692 
7724 
7150 

Pure,    hard    anthra- 
cite 

)  Bituminous      coal, 
V      having      77      to 
I       82%  of  carbon 

Bitu.     coal,     having 
78%  of  carbon 

59 


EUROPEAN  COUNTRIES— COXTIXUED 


Coals,  Locality  of 
Beds 


GERMANY 

Rhenish  Prussia: 

Dortmund,  Ruhr  coal 
Witten,  Ruhr  coal  . 
Bochum,  Ruhr  coal  . 
Bommern,  Ruhr  coal 

Essen,  Ruhr  coal  .  . 
Saar-coal 


Saxony: 


Zwickau 
Hohndorf 
Oelsnitz  . 


Lower  Saxony,  An- 
HALT  AND  Brunswig 


Unseburg 

Atzendorf 

Neudorf 

Gorzig 

Halle  a.  S. 

Bitterfeld 

Naumburg 


Hanover: 
Osnabruck      .    .    . 

Obernkirchen     .    . 

Silesia  (Prussia) 
Carlssegen 

Myslowitz  . 

Waterloa 

Konigshiitte 

Paulusgrube 

Waldenburg 

Brandenburg 

Neurode 

Freienstein. 

Maxgrube  . 


Bavaria: 

Hanshamer  coal     .    . 

Peipenberg 

Penzberg         .... 

FRANCE: 
Anthracite  de  la  May- 

enne 

Anthracite  de  Lamurc 

(Isere)     

Bassin     du     Pas-de- 
Calais: 

Maries 

Vully 

Hcssin 

Lens 


Nau.x  .... 
L'Escarpelle  . 
Les  Courriferes 


Bassin  de  la  Sa6ne: 
Blanzy     


Epinac 


Bassin  de  la  Loire: 
Rive-de-Gier  puits 

Henry 

Rivc-de-Gier,  No.  i 
Rive-de-Gicr,       Cime- 

tiere  i 


B.T.U 


I4SI8 
15125 
13514 
13212 

1498s 
iiSii 


11964 
1 1343 
10674 


5769 
6444 
6093 
3853 
416s 
3830 
4563 


10789 
12718 


10422 
10758 
1 1412 
12247 
1242s 
12637 
12193 
13393 
9651 
10087 


9821 
8186 


15566 
13782 


15352 
15258 

15256 
15400 
1426s 


13127 
14086 


IS481 
IS472 


Calo- 
ries 


8066 
8403 
7508 
7340 

832s 
639s 


6647 
6302 
5930 


3205 
3580 
3385 
2140 
2314 
212H 
2535 


5994 
7066 


5790 
5977 
6340 
6804 
6903 
7021 
6774 
7441 
5362 
5604 


5456 
4548 
4956 


8646 
7657 


7875 
8400 
8529 
8477 

8476 
8556 
7925 


7293 
7826 


8601 
8596 


8os2 


Nature 


■^Cannel  coal 

Short     flame     coal, 
semi-anthracite 

( Cannel  coal 


-Cannel  coal 


^  Brown  coal  or  lig- 
nite, low  grade 


Semi-anthracite, 

low  grade 
Bituminous 


I   Long  flaming, 
>      scmi-bitumin- 


I  Lignite   or    brown 
i      coal,  low  grade 


Anthracite 


I  Bituminous,    hard 
5      coal 

Bituminous,  coking 
Bituminous,      hard 

coal 
I  Bituminous, 
i      coking 
Semi-bituminous 

coal 


Semi-bituminous 
coal,  long  flame 

Bituminous      coal, 
long  flame 


Coals,  Locality  of 
Beds 


Bituminous, 
coal 


hard 


B.T.U. 


Bituminous,       hard 
coal,  long  flame 


FRANCE 

continued: 

Bassin  de   la  Loire: 

Rive-de-Gier,       Cime- 

tiere  2 

Rive-de-Gier 


Couson 
Bassin  de  l'Avevron  : 

Lavaysse 

Ceral 


Calo- 
ries 


15309 
14770 


14630 
13203 


8505 
8206 


Nature 


•Bituminous,     hard 
coal,  long  flame 


Bituminous,    hard 
coal,  long  flame 

Semi-bituminous 
coal 


Bassin   d'Alais  Roche- 
belle     15643     8691     Bituminous,  coking 


Bassin    de    Valenci- 
ennes: 

Denain  Fosse  Renard. 
Denain  Fosse  Lclvct  i 
Denain  Fosse  Lelvet  2 
St.   Wast,  Fosse  de  la 

Reussite      .... 
St. Wast,  Grande  Fosse 
St.   Wast,    Fosse   Tin- 

chon 

Anzin,     Fosse    Chauf- 

four 

Anzin,  Fosse  la  Cave. 
Anzin,  Fosse  St.  Louis 
Fresne,    Fosse   Bonne- 

parte 

Vieux-Cond6.        Fosse 

Sarteau 

BELGIUM 

Bassin  de  Mons: 

Haut-flenu      .... 
Belle   et    Bonne,    fosse 

No.  21 

Levant  du  flenu  .  . 
Couchant  du  flenu  . 
Midi  du  flenu  .  .  . 
Grand-IIornu  .  .  . 
Nord  du  bois  de  Bossu 
Grand-Buisson  .  .  . 
Escouffiaux  .... 
St.     Hortense,     bonne 


Bassin    du    Centre: 


Haine  St.  Pierre 
Bois  du  Lac  .  . 
La  Louvicre  .  . 
Bracquegnies 
Mariemont  .  . 
Bascoup  .  .  . 
Sars-Longchamps 
Houssu    .... 


Bassin  de  Charleroi  : 

St.  Martin,  Fosse  No. 

.}  ■  

Trieukaisin     .... 
Poirier,  Fosse  St.  Louie 
Baycmont,    Fosse    St. 

Charles 

Sacr6- Madame  .    .    . 
Sars-les-Moulins, 

Fosse  No.  7     .    .    . 
Carabinier-francais, 

No.  2 

Roton.  veine  Grcffier 
Pont-du-Ioup      .    .    . 


15244 
15100 
15316 

iSios 
IS188 

15082 

I43S3 
I4S49 
15397 

15228 
15409 


14576 

14326 
14508 
14446 
14553 
14943 
14407 
14877 
IS2I7 

15107 


14702 

14358 
15127 
15363 
15168 
1491 1 
14895 
14945 


14954 
15069 
14421 

13806 
15204 


14911 
14311 
14947 


8469 
8389 
8509 

8392 
8438 

8379 

7974 
8083 
8SS4 

8460 

8561 


8098 

7959 
8060 
8037 
8085 
8302 
8004 
826s 
8454 

8393 


8168 
7977 
8404 
8535 
8427 
8284 
«27S 
8303 


8308 
R372 
8012 

7670 
8447 

8403 

8284 
7951 
8304 


'Bituminous  coal, 
I      long  flame 


Bituminous  coal, 
short  flame 


>  Bituminous, 
\       coking 

(  Semi-bituminous 
f      co:-d 


Semi-bituminous, 
hard  coal 


Semi-bituminous, 
coking  coal 


[=■ 


tuminous, 
coal 


hard 


_  Semi-bituminous, 
coking 


Semi  -bituminous, 
hard  coal 


60 


EUROPEAN  COUNTRIES— CONTINUED 


Coals,  Locality  of 
Beds 


AUSTRIA-HUX- 
GARY 

Lower  Austria: 
Griinbach    .... 


Thallern 


Upper  Austria: 
Wolf  segg-  Trannt  hal 


Stvria: 
Leoben  .... 
Fohnsdorf  .  .  . 
Goriach  .... 
Koflach   .... 

Wies 

Trifail      .... 

Bohe.mia: 
Kladno  .... 
Buschtehrad  .  . 
Libuschin  .  .  . 
Schlan  .... 
Rakonitz-Lubna 
Pilsen  .... 
Schatzlar     .    .    . 

Aussig 

Dux 

Bilin 

Brii.x 

Moravia: 
Rossitz  .... 
M.  Ostran  .     .     . 

Gaya 

Goding    .... 


B.T.U. 


IMS'? 
7057 


6006 


9666 
9187 
6222 
6867 
7997 
7SS6 


1067s 
8865 
9900 
7979 

931S 
9S52 
6408 
7808 
8182 
8274 


I2S53 

12623 

4858 

S056 


Calo- 
ries 


6366 
3921 


5370 
S104 
3457 
38  IS 
4443 
4198 


593 1 

4925 
5500 
4433 
4032 
S177 
5307 
3560 
433S 
4546 
4597 


6974 
7013 
2699 
2809 


Nature 


Semi-bituminous 

coal 
Lignite    or    brown 

coal 


Lignite      or     brown 
coal 


Lignite  or  brown 
coal 


Semi-bituminous 
coal 


Lignite    or    brown 
coal 


;  Lignite    or    brown 
i      coal 


Coals,  Locality  of 
Beds 


AUSTRL\-HUX- 
GARY 


continued 
Silesia 
P.  Ostran    , 
Orlan-Lazy 
Poremba 
Karwin    .    . 
Taklowetz 

Hungary 

Fiinfliirchen 
.'\nina  .  . 
Xeufeld  .  . 
Brennberg  . 
Aika  .  .  . 
Salgor-Tarjan 
Dorog-Annatha 
Tokod.    .    .    . 


D.\l.matia 

Siveric     .    .    . 


Istria: 


Arsa 


Transylvani.m 


Petrozseny 
Egeres.    .     . 


Bosni.\: 


B.T.U. 


12564 
12389 
11057 
13021 
1 1932 


10276 
11356 

5200 

832s 

6913 
7966 
7709 


Zenica. 


Calo- 
ries 


6980 
6883 
6143 
7234 
6632 


5709 
6309 
2889 
462s 
3841 
4426 
4283 
4483 


5657 


6270 
4829 


Nature 


Bituminous  coal 


[  Cannel  coal 


Lignite  or  brown 
coal 


Lignite    or    brown 
coal 


Lignite    or    brown 
coal 


Lignite    or    brown 
coal 


Lignite    or    brown 
coal 


TEMPERATURE  OF  FIRE 

The  following  table,  from  M.  Pouillet,  will  enable  the  temperature  to  be  judged 
by  the  appearance  of  the  fire: 


Appearance 

Temperature 
Fahrenheit 

Appearance 

Temperature 
Fahrenheit 

Red,  just  visible 

Red,  dull 

977° 
1290 
1470 
1650 
1830 

Orange,  deep      

Orange,  clear 

White  heat 

White,  bright 

White,  dazzling 

2010° 
2190 

Red,  cherry,  dull 

Red,  cherry,  full 

Red,  cherry,  clear 

2370 

2550 
2730 

MELTING  POINTS  OF  METALS 


Substance 

Temperature 
Fahrenheit 

Metal 

Temperature 
Fahrenheit 

Metal 

Temperature 

Fahrenheit 

Spermaceti 
Wax,  white 
Sulphur    .    . 
Tin    .... 

120° 
239 

Lead    .    .    . 
Zinc     .    .    . 
Antimony  . 
Aluminum 
Brass  .    .    . 

625° 

780 

842 

1 160 

1650 

Silver,  pure    . 
Gold  coin    .    . 
Iron,  cast,  med 
Steel    .      .      . 
Wrought-iron 

1830° 
2156 
2010 
2550 

Bismuth  .    . 

2910 

61 


62 


ADVANTAGES  OF  LIQUID  FUEL  FOR  MARINE 

BOILERS 

THE  many  advantages  of  liquid  fuel  or  fuel  oil  for  use  with  steam 
boilers  have  been  apparent  for  a  long  time,  and,  in  localities  where 
the  crude  oil  or  refuse  from  distillation  could  be  obtained  cheaply 
(or  where  coal  w^as  very  expensive,  as  in  California)  it  has  been  used 
w4th  much  satisfaction.  As  far  back  as  1893,  Colonel  Soliani  of  the  Italian 
Navy  read  a  paper  giving  details  of  elaborate  trials  of  petroleum  refuse  as 
fuel,  and  in  1902-3  an  extended  series  of  tests  of  various  forms  of  burners 
w4th  crude  oil  was  made,  under  the  direction  of  the  late  Admiral  Melville, 
U.  S.  Navy,  by  a  Board  of  Naval  Engineers. 

In  all  of  these  tests,  the  oil  was  sprayed  or  atomized  by  steam  or  com- 
pressed air.  Although  excellent  results  were  obtained,  it  w^as  realized  by 
all  marine  engineers  that  the  problem  was  not  yet  successfully  solved  for 
sea-going  vessels  operating  away  from  a  ready  supply  of  fresh  water. 
What  was  needed  was  a  burner  which  would  efficiently  atomize  or  spray  the 
oil  by  pressure  alone,  or,  as  it  is  usually  called,  mechanical  atomization. 

The  Babcock  &  Wilcox  Company  had  developed  an  efficient  steam- 
atomizing  burner  which  has  been  extensively  employed  with  its  land  boilers, 
and  it  then  proceeded  to  develop  a  mechanical-atomizing  burner  for  use 
at  sea.  Such  a  burner  was  developed  which  gave  excellent  results  up  to 
a  rate  of  combustion  about  equal  to  Navy  forced  draft  practice  with  coal, 
but  it  was  realized  that  higher  rates  must  be  made  practicable  if  the  full 
benefit  of  oil  fuel  was  to  be  obtained.  Further  experimentation  made 
it  clear  that  the  burner  was  equal  to  any  demand,  but  that  the  proper 
admission  and  admixture  of  air  was  of  at  least  equal  importance.  This 
led  to  the  invention  of  an  air  register  or  impeller  which  enabled  extremely 
high  rates  of  combustion  to  be  obtained  without  smoke  and  with  high 
efficiency.  The  burners  and  registers  have  now  been  fitted  to  a  number  of 
naval  and  merchant  steamers  where  they  have  given  great  satisfaction. 

In  November  and  December,  19 10,  a  boiler  at  the  Company's  w^orks, 
fitted  with  these  burners  and  registers,  was  subjected  to  a  series  of  tests  by 
a  Board  of  Naval  Engineers  (which  is  reprinted  in  Table  XXIII.).  In  one  of 
these  tests  the  rate  of  combustion  was  1.16  pounds  of  oil  per  square  foot  of 
heating  surface  with  an  evaporation  of  nearly  16  pounds  from  and  at  212° 
per  square  foot  of  heating  surface.  The  Board  stated  that  this  was  the 
highest  rate  of  forcing  of  which  there  was  any  record.  (It  is  equivalent  to 
about  75  pounds  of  coal  per  square  foot  of  grate.) 

In  March,  1913,  a  series  of  tests  was  conducted  by  Lieutenant-Com- 
mander John  J.  Hyland,  U.  S.  N.,  at  the  Fuel  Oil  Testing  Plant,  Philadelphia 
Navy  Yard,  on  a  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boiler  which  is  the  same  as  one  of  the 
units  supplied  for  the  U.  S.  S.  "Oklahoma"  (12  boilers  in  all).     This  boiler 

63 


was  specially  designed  for  oil  fuel  and  high  rates  of  forcing,  while  the  one 
tested  in  1910  was  designed  primarily  for  coal  as  fuel.  The  difference  is 
mainly  in  the  much  larger  amount  of  furnace  volume  in  the  "Oklahoma's" 
boilers.  On  this  test,  the  unprecedented  rate  of  1.23  pounds  of  oil  and  18.7 
pounds  of  water  from  and  at  212°  per  square  foot  of  heating  surface  was 
obtained. 

The  importance  of  adequate  furnace  volume  is  very  great,  and  this  is 
one  of  the  features  in  which  the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boiler  is  superior  to  all 
others.  Indeed  this  boiler  is  specially  adapted  to  the  use  of  liquid  fuel,  and 
a  comparison  of  its  performance  with  those  of  other  boilers  shows  a  higher 
efficiency  (at  least  ten  per  cent.)  and  a  higher  capacity. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  LIQUID  FUEL 

Among  the  advantages  of  liquid  fuel  for  marine  boilers  may  be 
mentioned : 

Greater  convenience  and  uniformity  of  operation. 

Greatly  increased  cleanliness. 

Increased  bunker  capacity  due  to  greater  thermal  value. 

Ability  to  utilize  double-bottom  and  other  spaces  not  available 

for  £oal. 
Greatly  reduced  fire  room  force. 
Ease  and  rapidity  of  taking  fuel  on  board. 
Higher  efficiency  of  boiler  due  to  uniform  conditions  of  working, 

absence  of  opening  doors  for  firing,  and  no  loss  from  ashes 

and  unburnt  fuel. 
Absence  of  the  nuisance  of  ashes  and  cleaning  fires. 
Elimination  of  "stand-by"  losses. 

The  following  table  gives  the  specific  gravity  and  weight  of  oil  corre- 
sponding to  readings  on  Baumc  scale : 

DENSITY  OF  OIL 


Pounds 

Pounds 

Degrees  Baum^ 

Specific 

per 

Degrees  Baumd 

Specific 

per 

Gravity 

Gallon 

Gravity 

Gallon 

12 

.986 

8.22              i 

24 

•913 

7.61 

14 

•973 

8. II 

26 

.901 

751 

16 

.960 

8.00 

28 

.890 

7.42 

18 

.948 

7.90 

30 

.880 

7-33 

20 

•936 

7.80           1 

32 

.869 

7.24 

22 

.924 

7.70 

The  two  following  tables  are  given  to  show  equivalent  values  of  coal 
and  of  oil  in  heat  effect  and  at  varying  prices.  In  comparing  the  heat  effect, 
allowance  has  been  made  for  the  greater  efficiency  of  the  boiler  when  using 


64 


BABCOCK   &   WILCOX   BOILER.   U.   S.    NAVAL   OIL-FUEL   TESTIXG-PLAXT.    XAVY  YARD.    PHILADELPHIA.  PA. 

This  Boiler  Holds  the  World's  Record  for  Economy  and  Capacity.  Having  Evaporated  18.7  Lbs.  of  Water  per  Sq.  Ft.  of 
Heating  Surface  per  Hour  and  15.3  Lbs.  of  Water  per  Lb.  of  Oil  (both  f.  and  a.  212°  F.)  when  Burning  1.23  Lbs.  of 
Oil  per  Sq.  Ft.  of  Heating  Surface  per  Hour.  The  Boiler  Has  4000 .Sq.  Ft.  of  H.  S.,  and  Is  a  Duplicate  of  Twelve 
FOR  U.  S.  S.    "Oklahoma." 


65 


oil.  Tests  on  the  same  boiler  at  the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  works  showed  that 
the  efficiency  with  oil  is  ten  per  cent,  (of  the  coal  efficiency)  greater  than 
with  coal.  The  thermal  value  of  the  oil  has  been  taken  at  19,000  B.  T.  U., 
which  is  an  average  value  for  Texas  crude.  In  the  second  table,  com- 
paring costs,  coal  of  14,000  B.T.  U.  (Cumberland  or  George's  Creek)  has 
been  used.  The  density  of  the  oil  has  been  taken  at  .932  specific  gravity 
(20.7  Baume),  which  makes  the  weight  of  a  barrel  of  41  gallons,  314  pounds. 
A  ton  of  coal  is  taken  as  2240  pounds. 


RELATIVE  HEATING  EFFECT  OF  COAL  AND  OIL 


Coal,  B.  T.  U. 

I  lb.  oil  (19,000  B.  T.  U.) 

I  barrel  oil 

I  ton  (2240  lbs.) 

per  pound 

=    lbs.  coal 

=  lbs.  coal 

coal  =   bbl.  oil 

10,000 

2.090 

656.2 

3-41 

1 1 ,000 

1.900 

596.6 

3-75 

12,000 

1.742 

546-9 

4.09 

13,000 

1.608 

504.8 

4-44 

14,000 

1493 

46S.7 

4.78 

15,000 

1-393 

437-5 

5-12 

RF.LATIVE  COST  OF  COAL  AND  OIL 
(Coal  14,000  B.  T.  U.;  oil  19,000  B.  T.  U.) 


Oil — cents  per  gallon 

Oil— dollars  per  bbl. 

=  Coal — dollars  per  ton 

2.00 

$0.82 

S3-92 

2.25 

0.92 

4.41 

2.50 

1.02 

4.90 

2.75 

I-I3 

5-39 

3.00 

1-23 

.5-88 

3-25 

1-33 

6.37 

3-50 

1-43 

6.86 

4.00 

1.64 

7.84 

4-5(> 

1.84 

8.82 

5.00 

2.05 

9.80 

The  chemical  composition  and  the  calorific  value  of  oils  vary  even 
with  samples  from  the  same  general  locality,  so  that,  in  accurate  work,  it 
is  always  necessary  to  have  an  analysis  made.  The  following  table  gives 
data  of  some  analyses  of  Texas,  California,  and  Mexican  oils. 


66 


CALORIFIC  VALUE,  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY,  ETC.,  OF  FUEL  OILS 


Texas 

Californian 

Mexican 

Report 

"Oil  Fuel" 

Board 

Navy  Test 
B.  &.  W.  boiler 

Report  of 

"Oil  Fuel" 

Board 

Analysis 

for 

n.  &  W.  Co. 

Carbon  %      

Hydrogen  % 

Sulphur  % 

Oxygen  %      

Calorific  Value,  B.  T.  U.     .    . 

Specific  Gravity 

Baum6,  degrees 

Moisture  % 

Silt  % 

84.60 

10.90 

1.63 

2.87 

19,060 

0.924 

22 

180° 
200° 



19,086 

0.932 

20.7 

trace 

under  i 

295 

295 

81.52 
II.OI 

0.55 

6.92 

18,667 

0.966 

15 

311 
311 

I7>55i 
0.981 

12.8 

[             -35 
310 
347 

Flash  Point,  Fahr 

Burning  Point,  Fahr 

MECHANICAL  ATOMIZING  BURNER 


The  burner  used  by  The  Babcock  &  Wilcox  Company  is  the  in- 
vention of  Mr.  E.  H.  Peabody.  He  thus  describes  it  in  a  paper  read  before 
The  Society  of  Naval  Architects  and  Marine  Engineers,  November,  1912: 

"In  the  light  of  our  experiments  begun  in  1907  we  have  come  to  believe 
that  the  best  rotative  effect  on  the  oil  is  produced  by  the  tangential  delivery 
method,  and  it  seems  plain  that  the  best  way  to  reduce  friction  is  to  reduce 
the  amount  of  surface  to  which  the  oil  is  exposed  in  its  travel  through  the 
burner  after  it  begins  to  whirl  and  until  its  exit  from  the  tip.  We  have  also 
come  to  attach  great  importance  to  simplicity  in  everything  connected  with  oil 
burning  and  believe  that  the  oil  burner  itself  should  be  of  simple  construction, 
easily  taken  apart,  and  so  designed  that  when  taken  apart  all  the  small  passages 
and  wearing  surfaces  will  be  exposed  for  inspection,  cleaning,  and  repair. 

"  The  results  of  the  writer's  efforts  to  construct  a  burner  to  meet  these 
requirements  are  shown  in  the  cut  on  p.  69.  Oil  is  delivered  under  pressure  to 
an  annular  channel  cut  into  the  face  of  a  nozzle  upon  which  is  screwed  a  tip 
having  a  very  small  central  chamber  communicating  with  a  discharge  orifice. 
Between  the  nozzle  and  the  tip  a  thin  washer  or  disc  is  inserted  and  held  firmly 
in  place.  This  has  a  hole  in  the  center  corresponding  with  the  diameter  of  the 
central  chamber  of  the  tip,  and  small  slots  or  ducts,  extending  tangentially  from 
the  edges  of  the  central  opening  outward  toward  the  periphery  of  the  washer, 
long  enough  to  overlap  the  annular  channel  of  the  nozzle  and  put  it  in  communica- 
tion with  the  central  chamber.  The  effect  is  that,  when  the  burner  is  assembled 
with  the  washer  in  place,  oil  is  delivered  through  the  ducts  tangentially  to  the 
central  chamber  where  it  rapidly  revolves  and  almost  immediately  is  discharged 
through  the  orifice  in  the  tip. 

"  In  order  to  correct  a  popular  fallacy  I  beg  to  call  attention  here  to  the  fact 
that  no  mechanical  atomizer  produces  a  revolving  spray,  but  the  particles  of 
oil  fly  off  in  straight  lines  under  the  influence  of  centrifugal  force,  thus  forming 

67 


a  hollow,  conical  spray.  The  fineness  of  this  spray,  /.  e.,  the  minuteness  of  the 
particles  forming  it,  has  a  most  important  bearing  on  the  results  obtained  in  the 
furnace.  It  is  possible  with  some  forms  of  steam  atomizers  to  atomize  oil  so 
finely  that  no  flame  at  all  will  be  produced,  the  incandescent  combustion  chamber 
being  filled  with  a  clear  invisible  gas  and  every  brick  being  discernible.  I  doubt 
if  this  condition  of  flameless  combustion  can  be  produced  with  mechanical  ato- 
mizers and  heavy  oil,  nor  is  it  desirable  under  any  circumstances  for  the  simple 
reason  that  it  costs  too  much. 

"With  the  production  of  flame,  however,  furnace  design  assumes  an  added 
importance,  for  the  flame  must  be  distributed  evenly  and  without  localizing  on 
the  heating  surface  of  the  boiler,  and  the  gases  must  be  given  time  and  space  in 
which  to  expand  and  burn  as  nearly  as  possible  to  completion  before  being  cooled 
and  the  flame  extinguished  b}'  contact  with  the  tubes  of  the  boiler.  These 
points  become  exceedingly  vital  when  the  boiler  is  forced  to  the  requirements 
now  demanded  in  naval  service." 

AIR  REGISTER  OR  IMPELLER 

This  device  for  regulating  and  directing  the  admission  of  air,  and 
referred  to  on  page  63,  is  the  invention  of  Alcssrs.  Peabody  and  Irish,  and 
reference  is  made  to  it  in  the  paper  of  Mr.  Peabody,  just  quoted,  as  follows: 

"Great  delicacy  is  required  in  introducing  the  air  for  combustion,  very 
slight  changes  affecting  the  results  in  unsuspected  ways,  and  while  almost  any 
method  may  result  in  smokeless  combustion,  maximum  economy  and  capacity 
can  be  secured  only  by  careful  and  intelligent  design. 

"It  is  not  necessary  to  give  the  air  a  whirling  motion  but,  judging  from  our 
rather  exhaustive  experiments,  better  gas  anah'ses  are  secured,  lower  air  pressures 
are  required,  and  less  refinement  of  adjustment  is  needed  if  the  air  is  brought 
into  contact  with  the  oil  spray  with  the  right  sort  of  a  twist.  We  have  found 
the  impeller  plate,  illustrated  on  this  page,  most  effective  in  accomplishing  this 
mixture,  and  our  most  satisfactory  results  have  been  obtained  with  it." 


Impeller  or  Air  Register — Patented 
68 


Q 
W 
H 

H 
P< 


o 

CO 

H 


69 


EFFICIENCY— USE  OF  THE  COAL  CALORIMETER 

THE  term  "efficiency,"  specifically  applied  to  a  steam  boiler,  re- 
fers to  the  proportional  amount  of  heat  which  is  taken  from 
the  available  supply  in  the  fuel  and  transferred  to  the  steam 
generated.  In  the  case  of  an  engine,  the  efficiency  is  deter- 
mined by  the  amount  of  heat  taken  from  the  steam  and  transformed  into 
useful  work. 

The  efficiency  of  an  entire  plant,  which  includes  both  engine  and 
boiler  and  all  auxiliary  machinery,  embodying  all  their  combined  efficien- 
cies, appears  as  the  amount  of  work  which  can  be  developed  by  the  engine 
for  each  unit  of  fuel  consumed  in  the  furnaces.  It  is  evident,  therefore, 
that  if  a  poor  engine  be  installed,  the  efficiency  of  the  plant  as  a  whole 
will  be  low,  notwithstanding  a  highly  efficient  boiler,  and  vice  versa;  and 
the  same  thing  will  also  be  true,  even  with  a  first-class  engine  and  boiler, 
provided  much  heat  is  wasted  in  the  auxiliary  machinery.  A  statement 
of  the  efficiency  of  a  plant,  therefore,  indicates  but  little,  unless  something 
is  known  of  its  general  design  and  the  type  of  its  various  parts. 

Efficiency  is  best  expressed  as  a  percentage  of  the  total  heat  supplied. 

Enough  is  known  of  the  properties  of  the  steam  itself  to  make  the 
calculation  of  engine  efficiency  an  easy  matter  in  connection  with  a  careful 
test.  In  the  case  of  the  boiler,  however,  as  the  available  heat  is  in  the  coal, 
the  proposition  is  of  an  entirely  different  character,  and  a  separate  test,  in 
addition  to  that  of  the  boiler,  becomes  necessary  in  order  to  determine 
the  amount  of  heat  that  has  been  supplied  by  the  combustion  of  the  fuel. 
In  fact,  so  difficult  has  this  accurate  determination  of  the  heat  value  of  coal 
been  found,  that  engineers  with  any  desire  to  avoid  setting  up  false  standards 
have  until  recently  considered  it  best  to  make  no  report  whatever  on  this 
point  rather  than  to  put  forth  unreliable  or  doubtful  figures. 

Still,  without  a  determination  of  efficiency,  we  are  left  to  flounder  in  a 
sea  of  ignorance  where  the  only  things  that  keep  afloat  our  desires  for 
comparison  are  cut  and  dried  assumptions  that  nine  times  out  of  ten  have 
no  counterpart  in  fact. 

What  right  have  we  to  assume  that  the  Ohio  coal,  or  Western  Pennsyl- 
vania slack,  burned  under  the  boilers  of  the  large  ore-carrying  vessels  of 
the  Great  Lakes,  is  the  same  as  or  equivalent  to  the  Welsh  or  the  Cumber- 
land coal  used  by  the  transatlantic  flyers?  And  yet,  that  is  exactly  what 
we  do  when  we  compare  the  i  .6  pounds  of  coal  per  indicated  horse-power 
of  the  transatlantic  service  with  the  1.8  pounds  of  the  Lake  practice,  to  the 
disparagement  of  the  latter. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  best  ships  of  that  remarkable  fleet  of  grain  and 
ore  carriers  on  the  Lakes  equal  or  even  exceed  in  the  matter  of  efficiency 
the  larger  units  of  the  ocean  greyhounds.      But,  it  is  only  by  the  aid  of 


a  reliable  coal  calorimeter  that  we  are  able  to  recognize  such  facts  as  these, 
and  to  realize  that,  without  such  data,  terms  like  ''coal  burned  per  indicated 
horse-power,''  and  "water  evaporated  per  pound  of  coal"  mean  practically 
nothing  when  used  as  a  basis  for  comparison. 

The  method  of  determining  the  heat  value  of  fuel  that  at  once  ap- 
pealed to  pioneers  in  this  work,  was  the  burning  of  a  sample  of  the  fuel 
in  a  vessel  surrounded  by  water,  and,  by  measuring  the  rise  in  tempera- 
ture of  the  water,  estimate  the  heat  units  evolved  during  the  combustion. 

The  two  principal  sources  of  error  encountered  were:  incomplete 
combustion,  and  the  liability  of  some  of  the  products  of  combustion  to 
escape  without  giving  up  all  their  heat  to  the  water.  These  two  objec- 
tions prevail  to-day  in  many  forms  of  coal  calorimeters,  and,  added  to  the 
fact  that  oftentimes  insufficient  precaution  is  taken  to  calculate  radiation 
losses,  serve  to  promulgate  reports  of  very  low  calorific  values  for  coal  and 
very  high  percentages  of  boiler  efficiency. 

The  form  of  calorimeter  best  adapted  to  overcome  these  difficulties  is 
that  designed  by  M.  Berthelot,  in  which  the  combustion  takes  place  in  an 
atmosphere  of  oxygen  gas  tightly  enclosed  in  a  metal  bomb  which  is  it- 
self submerged  in  water  of  known  weight.  The  sample  of  coal  to  be 
tested  (the  calorimeter  is  equally  adapted  to  liquid  or  to  gaseous  fuels) 
is  finely  powdered,  weighed,  and  suspended,  in  the  center  of  the  bomb,  in 
a  small  platinum  dish  or  pan;  the  cover  of  the  bomb  is  then  screwed  on 
and  oxygen  gas  pumped  in  through  a  valve  at  the  top,  a  pressure  of  20 
to  25  atmospheres  being  used  to  insure  a  large  excess  of  oxygen  when  the 
combustion  takes  place. 

The  bomb  is  then  placed  in  the  water,  which  is  constantly  stirred, 
until  the  whole  apparatus  comes  to  the  same  temperature,  and  enough 
readings  are  taken  from  the  thermometer  placed  in  the  water  to  establish 
the  rate  of  radiation  under  the  conditions  existing  before  combustion.  It 
is  well  to  have  the  water  at  the  same  temperature  as  the  room,  or  slightly 
above. 

When  all  is  ready  to  start  the  combustion,  an  electric  current  is 
passed  through  a  very  fine  iron  wire  which  has  previously  been  sus- 
pended from  terminals  inside  the  bomb  in  such  a  way  as  to  touch  the  coal. 
On  the  passage  of  the  current,  the  wire  instantly  fuses  and  ignites  the 
coal,  which,  owing  to  the  atmosphere  of  oxygen,  burns  rapidly  and  com- 
pletely, giving  up  its  heat  to  the  walls  of  the  bomb,  which  in  turn  give  it 
up  to  the  water.  The  rise  in  temperature  of  the  water  is  carefully  noted, 
the  observations  being  continued  until  after  the  whole  comes  to  the  same 
temperature  and  begins  to  cool,  and  the  rate  of  cooling  is  established. 
The  thermometer  used  is  graduated  in  fiftieths  of  a  degree  centigrade, 
and  can  be  read  to  one-half  of  a  hundredth  of  a  degree.  In  this  way  the 
loss  by  radiation  during  the  combustion  may  readily  be  determined  and  the 

71 


proper  allowance  made.  The  combustion  is  always  complete,  and  no  loss 
of  heat  occurs  from  escaping  gases,  for  the  reason  that  the  gases  do  not 
escape  until  after  the  whole  operation  is  finished  and  the  bomb  is  opened. 

The  bomb  calorimeter,  as  designed  by  Berthelot,  however,  is  exceed- 
ingly expensive,  and  it  remained  for  M.  Mahler  to  redesign  this  instrument, 
replacing  the  interior  shell  of  platinum  by  a  coating  of  enamel  and  other- 
wise improving  and  cheapening  the  construction  so  that  the  bomb  calo- 
rimeter in  its  new  form  was  brought  within  reach  of  the  industrial  world. 

The  accompanying  cut  shows  the  Mahler  apparatus  in  all  its  essential 
details.  The  mode  of  operation  is  identical  with  that  explained  above, 
and  all  the  advantages  claimed  for  the  Berthelot  bomb  are  true  of  the 
Mahler. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  Mahler  calorimeter  is  far  more 
expensive  than  many  other  types,  the  principle  of  its  operation  and  the 
facility  with  which  it  can  be  made  to  give  trustworthy  determinations  of 
the  heating  value  of  fuels,  led  to  its  selection  as  the  best  instrument  for  this 
work  by  the  committee  of  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers, 
which  drew  up  the  1 899  code  relative  to  a  standard  method  of  conducting 
steam  boiler  trials.  It  therefore  stands  as  the  representative  coal  calo- 
rimeter of  the  day. 


CALORIMETER  OF  M.  PIERRE  MAHLER  FOR  DETERMIXIKG    THE  HEATING  VALUE  OF     FUELS 
Explanation:     A — Water  jacket  to  diminish  radiation.     B — Steel  bomb.  lined  with  enamel.    C — Platinum  pan  for 
coal.     D — Calorimeter  containing  weighed  water.     E — Electrode.     F — Fuse  wire.    G —  Support  for  agitator  and 
thermometer.     K — Spring    and    screw    for    revolving    agitator.      L — Lever    of    agitator.     M — Pressure    gauge. 
O — Oxygen  cylinder.     P — Electric  battery.     S — Agitator.     T — Thermometer. 


72 


NOTES  ON  THE  ANALYSIS  OF  CHIMNEY  GASES  BY 
THE  -ORSAT"  APPARATUS 


T 


HE  principal  constituents  of  the  gases  in  the  flues  or  chimney  of 
a  boiler  are  as  follows: 


Symbol 

1.  Oxygen      O 

2.  Nitrogen N 

3.  Carbon  dioxide,  usually  called  carbonic  acid  gas        ....         CO2 

4.  Carbonic  oxide     CO 

The  object  of  the  analysis  is  to  determine  the  percentage  of  these  gases 
present,  and  to  deduce  therefrom  the  amount  of  air  actually  entering  the 
furnace,  as  compared  with  the  air  theoretically  necessary  for  combustion. 
If  all  the  air  admitted  to  the  furnace  could  be  brought  into  such  intimate 


r^ 


Chimney 


Orsat  Apparatus  for  Gas 
Analysis 


contact  with  the  fuel  that  every  atom  of  the  oxygen  contained  in  it  could 
be  utilized  for  the  purposes  of  combustion,  the  escaping  gases  would  practi- 
cally consist  of  only  carbonic  acid  and  nitrogen — that  is,  each  atom  of  the 
carbon  of  the  fuel  w^ould  unite  with  two  atoms  of  oxygen  in  the  air  admitted, 
forming  CO  2,  the  nitrogen  passing  through  unchanged.  Such  a  result  is, 
however,  unattainable,  and  unless  an  excess  of  air  be  admitted,  the  carbon 
will  not  be  completely  consumed,  and  CO,  consisting  of  one  atom  of  carbon 
combined  with  one  atom  of  oxygen,  will  be  formed,  instead  of  CO  2.     The 


73 


<   i^ 
o 


O   u 


74 


formation  of  CO  results  in  a  very  serious  loss  of  heat,  and  must  therefore 
be  prevented  by  admitting  some  excess  of  air. 

The  excess  of  oxygen  required  is  generally  from  6  to  8  per  cent,  of  the 
volume  of  the  gases.  If  there  is  less  than  6  per  cent,  of  oxygen  there  will 
almost  certainly  be  traces  of  CO. 

The  Orsat  apparatus  enables  the  percentages  of  oxygen,  carbon  dioxide, 
and  carbonic  oxide  to  be  ascertained  directly.  The  remainder  is  usually 
considered  to  be  nitrogen,  as,  although  there  are  traces  of  other  gases,  they 
are  insignificant. 

The  apparatus,  which  is  shown  on  page  73,  consists  essentially  of  a 
measuring  tube  A,  into  which  a  sample  of  the  gas  is  drawn,  and  of  three 
other  vessels  B,  Bi,and  B2,  which  contain  substances  capable  of  absorbing 
respectively,  carbon  dioxide,  oxygen,  and  carbonic  oxide. 

The  method  of  using  the  apparatus  is  as  follows: 

Through  a  suitable  hole  in  the  chimney,  uptake,  or  flue,  insert  a  piece 
of  iron  tube,  long  enough  to  reach  well  past  the  center,  the  tube  having  saw 
slits  in  its  circumferential  plane  for  a  length  of  12  inches  or  more.  If  desired, 
a  tube  perforated  with  small  holes  may  be  used  instead. 

See  that  the  aperture  in  the  chimney,  round  the  tube,  is  tightly  plugged, 
so  as  to  prevent  air  (which  w^ould  probably  vitiate  the  results  obtained) 
being  drawn  in. 

Place  the  apparatus  in  a  convenient  position  near  the  chimney,  the 
bottom  of  the  apparatus  being,  say,  about  3  feet  above  the  level  of  the  feet 
of  the  observer;  connect  the  end  of  the  iron  tube  to  the  apparatus  by  an 
india-rubber  pipe  D,  having  a  U-tube  filled  with  glass  wool  inserted  at  the 
position  marked  E,  between  the  apparatus  and  the  boiler,  so  as  to  intercept 
dust. 

The  bottle  C  is  to  be  filled  about  two-thirds  full  of  water,  and  con- 
nected to  the  bottom  of  the  measuring  tube  A  by  an  india-rubber  tube. 
When  this  bottle  is  placed  on  the  top  of  the  case  containing  the  apparatus, 
or  at  some  other  convenient  similar  height,  the  water  will  naturally  flow 
into  the  vessel  A. 

If  now  the  bottle  C  be  placed  below  the  apparatus  and  the  cock  a 
opened,  it  is  evident  that  as  the  water  flows  out  of  A  the  gas  will  be  drawn 
in  from  the  flue  and  take  its  place.  Draw  in  the  gas  well  below  the  zero 
mark,  and  cut  off  the  connection  wdth  the  flue  by  closing  the  cock  a. 
Then  lift  the  bottle  C,  so  that  the  water  level  in  it  coincides  with  the  zero 
mark  in  the  measuring  tube,  and  open  the  three-way  cock  a  to  the  atmos- 
phere to  allow  of  the  surplus  gas  escaping.  We  thus  obtain  the  tube  A  full 
of  gas  at  atmospheric  pressure.  Again  close  the  cock  a.  Then,  by  opening 
one  of  the  cocks,  b,  bi,  or  62,  the  gas  contained  in  the  measuring  tube  A 
can  be  forced  into  either  of  the  vessels  B,  Bi,  or  B2,  by  raising  the  bottle 
C  so  that  the  water  flows  into  A,  due  care  being  taken  that  the  water  never 

75 


rises  above  the  mark  at  the  top  of  the  measuring  tube.     The  vessels  B, 
Bi,  and  B2  contain  the  following  reagents: 

Vessel.  Reagent.  To  absorb. 

B  One  part  commercial  caustic  potash  and  two  parts  of  water 

(solution  of  Sp.  Gr.  1.2)  CO2 

Bi.  Five  grammes  pyrogallic  acid  dissolved  in  15  cc.  water.  120 
grammes  caustic  potash  dissolved  in  80  cc.  water.  The  two 
solutions  to  be  mixed O 

B2.     Saturated  solution  cuprous  chloride  in  hydrochloric  acid         .  .  .  CO 

These  absorbing  vessels  should  be  filled  with  the  reagents,  rather  more 
than  half-way  up. 

It  is  essential  that  the  gases  to  be  tested  be  passed  through  the  different 
reagents  in  the  order  given  above,  otherwise  incorrect  results  will  be  obtained. 

The  vessels  B,  Bi,  and  B2  contain  small  glass  tubes.  These  are  used  with 
the  object  of  giving  a  greater  wetted  surface  to  absorb  the  gas  introduced. 

The  tubes  with  copper  wire  round  them  are  for  the  vessel  B2  containing 
cuprous  chloride. 

Note. — Care  should  be  taken  to  kecj:)  the  pyrogallic  solution  from  air, 
as  it  absorbs  oxygen  rapidly.  It  is  best  to  mix  the  potash  solution  with  it 
in  the  tube. 

The  measuring  tube  A  is,  for  convenience  of  calculation,  marked  off 
into  100  parts,  so  that  percentages  may  be  read  off  easily. 

At  the  moment  of  measuring  the  volume  of  gas  in  the  graduated  tube, 
the  water  bottle  must  be  held  at  such  a  height  that  the  level  of  the  water 
in  it  is  exactly  the  same  as  in  the  graduated  tube,  otherwise  the  gas  will  be 
compressed  or  expanded  by  the  difference  between  the  two  columns  of 
water. 

Before  commencing  the  test  get  rid  of  as  much  as  possible  of  the  air  in 
the  tubes  by  using  the  small  hand-bellows  shown  in  figure ;  then  draw  several 
samples  of  the  gas  into  the  measuring  tube,  and  discharge  each  in  its  turn 
to  the  atmosphere  through  the  three-way  cock  a.  Having  obtained  an  un- 
diluted sample,  shut  the  cock  a,  open  the  cock  b,  and  force  the  gas  into  the 
vessel  B.  Draw  the  gas  back  into  the  vessel  A,  and  repeat  the  operation 
three  or  four  times,  so  as  to  ensure  the  thorough  absorption  of  the  CO  2. 
The  last  two  readings  should  give  the  same  result,  showing  that  the 
absorption  is  complete. 

Follow  the  same  procedure  with  the  remaining  two  vessels  Bi  and 
B2,  taking  the  reading  of  the  reduced  quantity  of  gas  in  the  vessel  A  after 
each  operation. 

CO  2  is  absorbed  by  the  caustic  potash  solution  very  quickly,  and  it 
will  be  found  that  passing  the  gas  three  times  through  the  absorbing  vessel 
B  will  generally  be  quite  sufficient.  The  gas,  however,  must  be  passed 
through  the  pyrogallic  solution  at  least   five  or  six  times,  in  order  that 

76 


the  oxygen  may  be  all  absorbed.  If  this  be  not  done,  the  oxygen  remaining 
will  be  absorbed  by  the  cuprous  chloride,  and  will  be  mistaken  for  CO, 
although  there  may  be  none  of  that  gas  present. 

The  total  of  the  percentages  of  the  three  gases  CO  2,  CO,  and  O,  should 
be  about  19.5,  and  this  rule  may  be  used  as  a  rough  check  on  the  analysis. 

As  the  percentage  by  volume  of  oxygen  in  air  is  21,  the  volume  of  air 
corresponding  with  any  given  volume  of  oxygen  may  be  found  by  multiply- 
ing by  ^^,  or  4.762.  The  volume  of  air  corresponding  to  a  given  volume 
of  CO  2  may  also  be  found  by  multiplying  by  the  same  figures. 


EXAMPLE:— Analysis  shows. 


Then  air  used  for  combustion 
And  excess  air 


13-5 

6% 


CO3 
O 


13.5  X  4.762  =  64.3 
=  6  X  4.762  =  28.6 


92.9 


The  percentage  of  excess  air  above  that  which  is  necessary  for  combustion 
is  therefore: 

100  X  28.6 


64-3 


•=44-5% 


Care  should  be  taken  with  regard  to  the  following  points: 

1.  The  absorbent  should  not  be  forced  below  the  point  D,  or  some  of 
the  gas  may  escape  and  be  lost,  and,  of  course,  an  incorrect  result  obtained. 

2.  The  absorbent  must  be  at  exactly  the  same  level  in  the  tube — say 
at  C,  when  measuring  the  volume  after  the  gas  has  been  absorbed  as  before. 

3.  Time  must  be  allowed  for  the  water  to  drain  down  the  sides  of  the 
tube  before  taking  a  reading.  The  time  must  be  the  same  on  each  occasion, 
otherwise  more  water  will  drain  down  at  one  time  than  another,  and  an 
incorrect  reading  result. 


A  3500-MILE  R.\iL  Shipment  for  the  Pacific  Coast 


REASONS  FOR  HIGH    EFFICIENCY   OF  BOILERS 

THE  text-books  on  physics  explain  that  fluids  are  heated  (and  cooled) 
not  by  direct  conduction  of  heat,  but  by  what  is  called  convection, 
where  the  portion  near  the  source  of  heat  has  its  temperature 
raised  and  is  displaced  by  the  cooler  portions  which  are  heated 
in  turn.  It  is  evident,  therefore  (as  already  referred  to  on  page  29),  that 
the  boiler  which  provides  most  thoroughly  definite  paths  for  the  hot  gases 
and  the  water  and,  at  the  same  time,  breaks  them  up  so  that  all  portions 
can  intermingle,  will  abstract  the  greatest  percentage  of  heat  and  thus  give 
the  highest  efficiency.  The  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boiler  accomplishes  this  in 
the  most  thorough  manner. 

By  means  of  the  fire-brick  roof  and  the  increasing  volume  of  the  furnace, 
the  fuel  is  given  ample  opportunity  for  complete  combustion  before  the  hot 
gases  pass  among  the  tubes.  By  means  of  the  vertical  baffles,  the  gases 
are  directed  at  right  angles  across  the  tubes  three  times;  and,  in  addition, 
owing  to  the  sinuous  headers  which  "stagger"  the  tubes,  the  gases  are 
thoroughly  broken  up  and  every  part  brought  in  contact  with  the  heating 
surface.  From  the  top  of  the  last  pass,  the  gases  go  direct  to  the  smoke 
pipe,  with  a  minimum  loss  of  draft.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  the 
circulation  of  the  gases  is  perfect. 

The  water  is  fed  into  the  steam  and  water  drum  and  thence  descends 
through  the  connecting  nipples  to  the  front  headers,  from  which  it  jDasses 
through  the  tubes  receiving  heat  and  being  partly  converted  into  steam. 
The  mixed  steam  and  water  fills  the  back  headers  and  passes  through  the 
return  circulating  tubes  to  the  steam  and  water  drum,  separating  so  that 
the  water  falls  into  the  body  of  water  in  the  drum,  while  the  steam  passes 
around  the  ends  of  the  baffle-plate  into  the  steam  space.  It  is  hard  to 
conceive  of  a  simpler  and  more  direct  circulation. 

Inasmuch  as  boilers  have  been  constiuctcd  with  tubes  at  every  in- 
clination from  horizontal  to  vertical,  the  query  would  naturally  arise  whetlicr 
one  inclination  is  better  than  another.  This  subject  has  been  investigated 
by  special  tests  and  confirmed  in  practice,  showing  that  maximum  results 
are  secured  when  the  tubes  have  an  inclination  of  10  degrees  to  15  degrees 
to  the  horizontal.  The  standard  angle  for  the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boiler  is 
15  degrees. 

The  increased  rates  of  combustion  with  coal  and  the  use  of  oil  fuel, 
with  its  possibilities  of  very  high  forcing,  have  raised  the  question  of  the 
effect  of  this  greatly  stimulated  evaporation  on  the  circulation,  that  is, 
whether  it  will  be  as  definite  as  at  lower  rates  but  simply  increased  in 
amount.  This  has  been  the  subject  of  careful  laboratory  investigation 
and  also  of  extended  tests  of  boilers  under  all  degrees  of  forcing.  These 
have  all  shown  conclusively  that,  in  a  well-designed  boiler  with  a  simple 

78 


and  definite  path  for  the  circulation,  there  will  be  no  change  of  direction 
however  severe  the  forcing. 

It  is  very  clear,  therefore,  that,  in  the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boiler,  the 
conditions  are  almost  ideal  for  a  perfect  circulation,  and  experience  has 
shown  this  to  be  the  fact.  In  the  tests  of  the  "Wyoming's"  boiler  with  oil 
fuel,  the  unprecedented  rate  of  evaporation  of  almost  i6  pounds  per  square 
foot  of  heating  surface  was  maintained  without  any  difficulty,  and  subse- 
quent examination  showed  that  no  part  of  the  boiler  had  been  injured  or 
distorted  in  the  least  degree.  Without  perfect  circulation,  such  a  per- 
formance is  impossible. 


December  on  Lake  Superior 


79 


STEAM— PROPERTIES  AND  LAWS  OF   GENERATION 

WHEN  water  is  converted  into  steam  it  has  first  to  be  heated  to 
a  certain  definite  temperature  which  is  called  the  boiling  point. 
This  temperature  equals  212  degrees  Fahrenheit  for  the  or- 
dinary pressure  of  the  atmosphere  (14.7  pounds  above  vacuum), 
but  as  the  pressure  is  increased  the  boiling  point  increases,  although  at  a 
decreasing  ratio,  until  at  500  pounds  above  vacuum  it  equals  467.3 
degrees  Fahrenheit.  As  the  water  rises  in  temperature,  it  absorbs  heat  at 
the  rate  of  one  B.  T.  U.  for  each  degree  Fahrenheit.  This  is  known  as  the 
heat  of  the  liquid,  or  sensible  heat,  as  it  may  be  shown  by  means  of  a 
thermometer. 

After  reaching  the  boiling  point,  the  further  addition  of  heat  transforms 
the  water  into  steam  without  increasing  its  temperature.  The  heat  thus 
absorbed  is  called  the  heat  of  vaporization,  or  "latent  heat,"  and  cannot  be 
shown  by  any  instrument  for  measuring  temperatures.  The  latent  heat 
decreases  as  the  pressure  increases,  it  being  about  970  British  thermal  units 
per  pound  at  atmospheric  pressure,  and  about  762  at  500  pounds  pressure 
above  vacuum. 

It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  the  temperature  of  steam  normal  to  its 
pressure,  is  the  same  as  of  the  water  at  the  boiling  point,  and  also  that  the 
total  heat  in  steam  consists  of  two  parts;  first,  the  heat  contained  in  the  liquid 
at  the  boiling  point,  and  second,  the  heat  of  vaporization.  Or,  in  other 
words,  the  total  heat  is  the  sum  of  the  sensible  heat  and  the  latent  heat. 

The  total  heat  increases  slightly  as  the  pressure  increases,  being  1 150.4 
British  thermal  units  per  pound  at  atmospheric  pressure,  and  12 10  Britisli 
thermal  units  at  500  pounds. 

The  density  of  steam  increases  with  the  pressure,  and  varies  as  the  17th 
root  of  the  i6th  power.  Its  weight  per  cubic  foot  may  be  found  by  the 
formula  w  =  .003027/?'^',  where  p  =  the  pressure  above  vacuum.  The  re- 
sults are  correct  within  y,  per  cent,  up  to  250  pounds  pressure. 

Saturated  steam  cannot  be  cooled  except  by  lowering  its  pressure, 
any  cooling  effect  being  compensated  for  by  some  of  the  steam  being  con- 
densed and  giving  up  its  latent  heat.  Neither  can  steam  in  direct  contact 
with  water  be  heated  above  the  normal  temperature  corresponding  to  its 
pressure,  providing  there  is  an  opi)ortunity  for  free  transference  of  heat; 
the  only  effect  of  the  addition  of  more  heat  being  to  evajDorate  more  water. 
If  there  is  no  outlet  for  the  additional  steam  formed,  both  the  pressure  and 
the  temperature  will  be  increased.  When  steam  is  removed  from  contact 
with  water,  it  may  be  heated  above  the  normal  temperature  corresponding 
to  its  pressure.     It  is  then  called  superheated. 

The  table  on  page  8 1  gives  the  properties  of  saturated  steam  at  various 
pressures. 

80 


PROPERTIES  OF  SATURATED  STEAM 

(Compiled  from  Wm.  Kents'  condensation  of  Marks  &  Davis's  Tables) 


3  Q-ui 

3 

3      -::1 

.S  'I' '3 

i   ^ 

ill 

<u  0 

rr  w  OJ 

C  nj  u 

+j  *j  Cl, 

n!  n! 

CXI  aj 

(U     CTi  fJL, 

0 1 

^   fe 

4J|>0 

ci      0 

< 

0 

14.7 

212.6 

180.0 

970.4 

5-3 

20.0 

228.0 

196. 1 

960.0 

10.3 

25.0 

240.1 

208.4 

952.0 

15-3 

30.0 

250.3 

218.8 

945-1 

20.3 

35-0 

259.3 

227.9 

938.9 

25-3 

40.0 

267.3 

236.1 

933.3 

30.3 

45-0 

274.5 

243.4 

928.2 

35.3 

50.0 

281.0 

250.1 

923.5 

40.3 

55-0 

287.1 

256.3 

919-0 

45-3 

60.0 

292.7 

262.1 

914-9 

50.3 

65.0 

298.0 

267.5 

91 1.O 

55-3 

70.0 

302.9 

272.6 

907.2 

60.3 

75-0 

307.6 

277.4 

903.7 

6S.3 

80.0 

312.0 

282.0 

900.3 

70.3 

85.0 

316.3 

286.3 

897.1 

75-3 

90.0 

320.3 

290.5 

893-9 

80.3 

95-0 

324.1 

294.5 

890.9 

85.3 

100. 0 

327.8 

298.3 

888.0 

90.3 

105.0 

331.3 

302.0 

885.3 

95-3 

IIO.O 

334.8 

305. 5 

882. 5 

100.3 

115-0 

338.0 

308.9 

879.9 

105.3 

120.0 

341.3 

312.3 

877.2 

no. 3 

125.0 

344.4 

315.5 

874.7 

115. 3 

130.0 

347.4 

318.6 

872-3 

120.3 

135.0 

350.2 

321.7 

869.9 

I2S-3 

140.0 

353.1 

324.6 

867-6 

130.3 

145-0 

355.8 

327.4 

865-4 

135-3 

150.0 

358.5 

330.2 

863.2 

140.3 

155-0 

361.0 

332.9 

861.0 

145.3 

160.0 

363.6 

335.6 

858.8 

150.3 

165.0 

366.1 

338.2 

856.8 

155-3 

170.0 

368.S 

340.7 

854.7 

157-3 

172.0 

369.4 

341.7 

853-9 

159-3 

174.0 

370.4 

342.7 

8S3-I 

161. 3 

176.0 

371.3 

343.7 

852.3 

163.3 

178.0 

372.2 

344.7 

851.5 

165.3 

180.0 

373.1 

345.6 

850.8 

167.3 

182.0 

374.0 

346.6 

850.0 

169.3 

184.0 

374-9 

347.6 

849.2 

171.3 

186.0 

375-8 

348.5 

848.4 

173-3 

188.0 

376.7 

349.4 

847.7 

175-3 

190.0 

377.6 

350.4 

846.9 

177-3 

192.0 

378. 5 

351.3 

846.1 

179.3 

194.0 

379.3 

352.2 

845.4 

181. 3 

196.0 

380.2 

353.1 

844-7 

183-3 

198.0 

381.0 

354.0 

843-9 

185.3 

200.0 

381.9 

354.9 

843-20 

187.3 

202.0 

382.7 

355.8 

842.48 

189.3 

204.0 

383.6 

356.7 

841.76 

191. 3 

206.0 

384.4 

357-5 

841.04 

193.3 

208.0 

385.2 

358-4 

840.32 

195.3 

210.0 

386.0 

359.2 

839.60 

197-3 

212.0 

386.8 

360.1 

838.92 

199.3 

214.0 

387.6 

361.0 

838.24 

201.3 

216.0 

388.3 

361.8 

837.56 

203.3 

218.0 

389.1 

362.6 

836.88 

205.3 

220.0 

389.9 

363.4 

836.20 

207.3 

222.0 

390.7 

364.3 

835.52 

<"  a  ^ 


150.4 
156.2 
160.4 
163.9 
166.8 
169.4 

171. 6 
173.6 
175.4 
177.0 
178.5 
179-8 
181. 1 
182.3 
183.4 
184.4 
185.4 
186.3 
187.2 
188.0 
188.8 
189.6 
190.3 

191. 0 
191. 6 
192.2 
192.8 
193.4 
193-9 
194-5 
195.0 
195.4 
195.6 
195.8 
196.0 
196.2 
196.4 
rg6.6 
196.8 
196.9 

197. 1 
197.3 
197.4 
197.6 
197.8 
197.9 
198.10 
198.24 
198.38 
198.52 
198.66 
198.80 
198.96 
199.12 
199.28 
199.44 
199.60 
199.72 


x;  o  M 


r'3  a 


0.03732 

0.04980 

0.06140 

0.0728 

0.0841 

0.0953 

0.1065 

0.II7S 
0.128S 
0.1394 
0.1503 
0.1612 
0.1721 
0.1829 
0.1937 
0.2044 
0.2151 
0.2258 
0.236s 
0.2472 
0.2578 
0.2683 
0.2790 
0.2897 
0.3002 
0.3107 
0.3213 
0.3320 
0.3425 
0.3529 
0.3633 
0.3738 
0.3780 
0.3822 
0.3864 
0.3906 
0.3948 
0.3989 
0.4031 
0.4073 
0.411S 
0.4157 
0.4199 
0.4241 
0.4283 
0.432s 
0.4370 
0.4410 
0.4450 
0.4490 
0.4530 
0.4570 
0.4612 
0.4654 
0.4696 
0.4738 
0.4780 
0.4S22 


3  Oi , 


O  S 


209.3 
2H.3 
213.3 
215.3 
217.3 
219.3 
221.3 
223.3 
225.3 
227.3 
229.3 
231.3 
233.3 
235-3 
237-3 
239.3 
241.3 
243.3 
245.3 
247.3 
249-3 
251-3 
253-3 
255.3 
257.3 
259.3 
261.3 
263.3 
265.3 
267.3 
269.3 
271.3 
273.3 
275-3 
277.3 
279.3 
281.3 
283.3 
285.3 
287.3 
289.3 
291.3 
293.3 
295.3 
297.3 
299.3 
301.3 
303.3 
305.3 
315.3 
325.3 
335.3 
360.3 
385.3 
410.3 
435-3 
460.3 
485.3 


224.0 
226.0 
228.0 
230.0 
232.0 
234.0 
236.0 
238.0 
240.0 
242.0 
244.0 
246.0 
248.0 
250.0 
252.0 
254.0 
256.0 
258.0 
260.0 
262.0 
264.0 
266.0 
268.0 
270.0 
272.0 
274.0 
276.0 
278.0 
280.0 
282.0 
284.0 
286.0 
288.0 
290.0 
292.0 
294.0 
296.0 
298.0 
300.0 
302.0 
304.0 
306.0 
308.0 
310.0 
312.0 
314.0 
316.0 
318.0 
320.0 
330.0 
340.0 
350.0 
375.0 
400.0 
425.0 
450.0 
475.0 
500.0 


0 

.E  ■?  'C 

3  m'oj 

-S-c 

rt      ^ 

rt  Ji-^ 

■--2  S 

E  9  S 

p,^Ji 

^^•^ 

c^'% 

Ba-% 

^^^ 

-         (X. 

391.5 

365.1 

834.84 

392.3 

365.9 

834.16 

393.1 

366.7 

833.48 

393.8 

367. 5 

832.80 

394.5 

368.3 

832.14 

395.3 

369.1 

S3 1. 48 

396.0 

369.8 

830.82 

396.7 

370.6 

830.16 

397.4 

371.4 

829.50 

398.2 

372.1 

828.86 

399.0 

372.9 

828.22 

399.7 

373.6 

827.58 

400.4 

374.4 

826.94 

401. 1 

375.2 

826.30 

401.8 

376.0 

825.66 

402.4 

376.7 

825.02 

403.1 

377.5 

824.38 

403.8 

378.2 

823.74 

404.5 

378.9 

823.10 

405.2 

379.6 

822.50 

405.9 

380.4 

821.90 

406.6 

381. 1 

821.30 

407.2 

381.8 

830.70 

407.9 

382.5 

820.10 

408.6 

383.2 

819.50 

409.2 

383.9 

818.90 

409.9 

384.6 

81S.30 

410.5 

385.3 

817.70 

411. 2 

386.0 

817.10 

411. 8 

386.7 

816.52 

412.4 

387.4 

815-94 

413. 1 

388.1 

815-36 

413.7 

388.7 

814.78 

414.4 

389.4 

814.20 

415.0 

390.1 

813-62 

415.6 

390.8 

813.04 

416.2 

391.4 

812.46 

416.8 

392.1 

811.88 

417. 5 

392.7 

811.30 

418. 1 

303.3 

810.74 

418.7 

^.4-0 

810.18 

419.3 

394.6 

809.62 

419.9 

395.3 

809-06 

420.5 

395.9 

808.50 

421. 1 

396.5 

807.96 

421.7 

397.2 

807.42 

422.2 

397.8 

806.88 

422.8 

398.5 

806.34 

423.4 

399.1 

805.80 

426.3 

402.2 

803.10 

429.1 

405.3 

800.40 

431.9 

408.2 

797. So 

438.5 

415.4 

791.55 

444-8 

422.0 

786.00 

450.8 

428.5 

779.00 

456.5 

435-0 

774.00 

461.0 

441-5 

768.00 

467.3 

448.0 

762.00 

x'il 


199.84 
199.96 
200.08 
200.20 
200.34 
200.48 
200.62 
200.76 

200. go 
201.02 
201.14 
201.26 
201.38 
201.50 
201.62 
201.74 
201.86 
201.98 
202.10 
202.20 
202.30 
202.40 
202.50 
202.60 
202.70 
202.80 
202.90 
203.00 
203.10 
203.20 
203.30 
203.40 
203.50 
203.60 
203.70 
203.80 
203.90 
204.00 
204.10 
204.18 
204.26 
204.34 
204.42 
204.50 
204.58 
204.66 
204.74 
204.82 
204.90 
205.30 
205.70 
206.10 
206.95 
208.00 
208.00 
209.00 
209.00 
210.00 


e:fc  o 


Sr''.  B 


0.4864 
0.4906 
0.4948 
0.4990 
0.5032 
0.5074 
0.5116 
0.5158 
0.5200 
0.5242 
0.5284 
0.5326 
0.5378 
0.5410 
0.5450 
0.5490 
0.5530 
0.5570 
0.5610 
0.5652 
0.5694 
0.5736 
0.5778 
0.5820 
0.5862 
0.5904 
0.5946 
0.5988 
0.6030 
0.6072 
0.61 14 
0.6156 
0.6198 
0.6240 
0.6282 
0.6324 
0.6366 
0.6408 
0.6450 
0.6492 
0.6534 
0.6576 
0.6618 
0.6660 
0.6702 
0.6744 
0.6786 
0.6828 
0.6870 
0.7080 
0.7290 
0.7500 
0.801S 
0.8600 
0.9100 
0.9600 
1.0200 
1.0800 


Pressures  below  the  atmosphere,  or  partial  vacuum,  are  often  expressed 
in  inches  (of  mercury).  The  following  table  gives  the  temperature  and 
pressure  of  steam  corresponding  to  various  vacua. 


a; 


H 

w 
u;   ( 

u 


82 


PROPERTIES  OF  SATURATED  STEAM  BELOW  ATMOSPHERIC  PRESSURE 


Vacuum  in 

Absolute 

Temperature 

Heat  of  Liquid 

Latent  Heat 

Total  Heat 

Density 

inches  of 

Pressure 

Degrees 

above  32°  F. 

above  32°  F. 

above  32°  F. 

Weight  of  a  Cubic 

Mercury 

Pounds 

Fahr. 

B.T.U. 

B.T.U. 

B.T.U. 

foot — Pounds 

29-5 

0.207 

54-1 

22.18 

1 061.0 

1083.2 

0.000678 

29.0 

0.452 

76.6 

44.64 

1048.7 

1093-3 

O.OOI415 

28.5 

0.698 

90.1 

58.09 

1 04 1 . 1 

1099.2 

0.002137 

28.0 

0.944 

99-9 

67.87 

1035-6 

1 103-5 

0.002843 

27.0 

1.44 

112.5 

80.4 

1028.6 

1 109.0 

0.00421 

26.0 

1-93 

124-5 

92-3 

1022.0 

III4.3 

0.00577 

25.0 

2.42 

132.6 

100.5 

IOI7.3 

III7.8 

0.00689 

24.0 

2.91 

1 40. 1 

108.0 

IOI3.I 

II2I.I 

0.00821 

22.0 

3-89 

151-7 

II9.6 

1006.4 

I  126.0 

0.01078 

20.0 

4.87 

161. 1 

128.9 

lOOI.O 

1 129.9 

O.OI33I 

18.0 

=5.86 

168.9 

136.8 

996.4 

I  133-2 

O.OI58I 

16.0 

6.84 

175-8 

143.6 

992.4 

1 136.0 

0.01827 

14.0 

7.82 

181.8 

149.7 

988.8 

II38.5 

0.02070 

12.0 

8.80 

187.2 

1 55- 1 

985.6 

1 140.7 

0.02312 

lO.O 

9-79 

192.2 

160. 1 

982.6 

1 142.7 

0.02554 

5-0 

12.24 

202.9 

170.8 

976.0 

1 146.8 

0.03148 

WEIGHT  OF  WATER  AT  TEMPERATURES  ABOVE  200°  FAHR. 
(Landolt's  and  Bornstein's  Tables,  1905) 


Deg. 

Lbs.  per 

Deg. 

Lbs.  per 

Deg. 

Lbs.  per 

Deg. 

Lbs.  per 

F. 

Cu.  Ft. 

F. 

Cu.  Ft. 

F. 

Cu.  Ft. 

F. 

Cu.  Ft. 

200 

60.12 

300 

57-33 

400 

53-5 

500 

48.7 

210 

59.88 

310 

57.00 

410 

53-0 

510 

48.1 

220 

59-63 

320 

56.66 

420 

52-6 

520 

47.6 

230 

59-37 

330 

56.30 

430 

52.2 

530 

47.0 

240 

59-11 

340 

55-94 

440 

51-7 

540 

46-3 

250 

58-83 

350 

55-57 

450 

51.2 

550 

45-6 

260 

58-55 

360 

55-18 

460 

50.7 

560 

44-9 

270 

58.26 

370 

54-78 

470 

50.2 

570 

44.1 

280 

57-96 

380 

54-36 

480 

49-7 

580 

43-3 

290 

57-65 

390 

53-94 

490 

49-2 

590 
600 

42.6 
41.8 

WATER— THE  MEASUREMENT  OF  HEAT 

Water  has  a  greater  capacity  for  absorbing  heat  than  any  other  known 
substance — bromine  and  hydrogen  excepted.  For  this  reason  and  from 
the  fact  that  it  is  so  commonly  found  in  nature,  and  can  be  easily  handled 
in  experimental  work,  it  has  been  adopted  as  the  standard  substance  for 
measuring  the  quantity  of  heat. 

Two  distinct  heat  units  are  used  in  practice — calories  and  British 
thermal  units.  The  latter,  usually  designated  by  the  letters  B.  T.  U.,  is  the 
quantity  of  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  one  pound  of  water 
one  degree  Fahrenheit.  The  calorie  is  the  quantity  required  to  raise  a 
kilogram  of  water  one  degree  centigrade,  and  is  equal  to  3.958  British 
thermal  units. 

The    heat-absorbing   capacity,  or,  as  it  is  called,  the  specific  heat  of 


83 


►J    - 


5   o 


-      a 


84 


water,  is  not  exactly  constant  for  all  temperatures,  but  after  decreasing 
very  slightly,  again  increases,  and  in  a  gradually  increasing  ratio,  as  the 
temperature  is  increased. 

The  accompanying  table  shows  the  number  of  British  thermal  units 
that  will  be  absorbed  by  one  pound  of  water,  when  heated  from  32  degrees 
to  various  temperatures  below  212  degrees. 

WATER  BETWEEN  32  AND  212  DEGREES  FAHRENHEIT 


Tem- 

Heat 

Weight. 

Tem- 

Heat 

Weight, 

Tem- 

Heat 

Weight, 

Tem- 

Heat 

Weight, 

pera- 

Units 

Pounds 

pera- 

Units 

Pounds 

pera- 

Units 

Pounds 

pera- 

Units 

Pounds 

ture 

above  32° 

per 

ture 

above  32° 

per 

ture 

above  32° 

per 

ture 

above  3  2° 

per 

Fahr. 

per  Lb. 

Cub.  Ft. 

1 

Fahr. 

per  Lb. 

Cub.  Ft. 

Fahr. 

per  Lb. 

Cub.  Ft. 

Fahr. 

per  Lb. 

Cub.  Ft. 

32 

0.00 

62.42 

78 

46.04 

62.24 

124 

91.90 

61.65 

170 

137-87 

60.80 

34 

2.01 

62.42 

80 

48.03 

62.22 

126 

93 

90 

61.61 

172 

139-87 

60.76 

36 

4-03 

62.43 

82 

50.03 

62.20 

128 

95 

89 

61.58 

174 

141.87 

60.71 

38 

6.04 

62.43 

84 

52.02 

62.18 

130 

97 

89 

61-55 

176 

143-87 

60.67 

40 

8.05 

62.43 

86 

54.01 

62.16 

132 

99 

88 

61.52 

178 

145-88 

60.62 

42 

10.06 

62.43 

88 

56.01 

62.14 

134 

lOI 

88 

61.49 

180 

147.88 

60.58 

44 

12.06 

62.43 

90 

58.00 

62.12 

136 

103 

88 

61.45 

182 

149.89 

60.53 

46 

14.07 

62.42 

92 

60.00 

62.09 

138 

105 

87 

61.41 

184 

151.89 

60.49 

48 

16.07 

62.42 

94 

61.99 

62.07 

140 

107 

87 

61.38 

186 

153-89 

60.45 

50 

18.08 

62.42 

96 

63.98 

62.05 

142 

109 

87 

61.34 

188 

155-90 

60.40 

52 

20.08 

62.41 

98 

65.98 

62.03 

144 

III 

87 

61.31 

190 

157-91 

60.36 

54 

22.08 

62.40 

100 

67.97 

62.00 

146 

113 

86 

61.27 

192 

159-91 

60.31 

56 

24.08 

62.39 

102 

69.96 

61.98 

148 

115 

86 

61.24 

194 

161.92 

60.27 

58 

26.08 

62.38 

104 

71.96 

61-95 

150 

117 

86 

61.20 

196 

163.92 

60.22 

60 

28.08 

62.37 

106 

73-95 

61.93 

152 

119 

86 

61.16 

198 

165-93 

60.17 

62 

30.08 

62.36 

108 

75-95 

61.90 

154 

121 

86 

61.12 

200 

167.94 

60.12 

64 

32.07 

62.35 

no 

77-94 

61.86 

156   ^ 

123 

86 

61.08 

202 

169.95 

60.07 

66 

34-07 

62.33 

112 

79-93 

61.83 

158 

125 

86 

61.04 

204 

171.96 

60.02 

68 

36.07 

62.32 

114 

81.93 

61.80 

160 

127 

86 

61.00 

206 

173-97 

59-98 

70 

38.06 

62.30 

116 

83.92 

61.77 

162 

129 

86 

60.96 

208 

175-98 

59-93 

72 

40.05 

62.29 

118 

85.92 

61.74 

164 

131 

86 

60.92 

210 

177-99 

59.88 

74 

42.05 

62.27 

1    120 

87.91 

61.71 

166 

133 

86 

60.88 

212 

180.00 

59-83 

76 

44.04 

62.26 

1    ^22 

89.91 

61.68 

168 

135 

86 

60.84 

There  are  four  notable  temperatures  for  pure  water,  viz. : 

1.  Freezing  point  at  sea  level,  32°  F.   .    .    .    Weight  per  cii.  ft.,  62.418  lb.;  per  cu.  in.,  .03612    lb. 

2.  Point  of  maximum  density,  39.1°  F.    .    .     Weight  per  cu.  ft.,  62.425  lb.;  per  cu.  in.,  .036125  lb. 

3.  British  standard  for  specific  gravity,  62° F.  Weight  per  cu.  ft.,  62.355  lb-!  per  cu.  in.,  .03608    lb. 

4.  Boiling  point  at  sea  level,  212°  F.     .    .    .     Weight  per  cu.  ft.,  59.830  lb.;  per  cu.  in.,  .03462    lb. 

A  United  States  standard  gallon  holds  231  cubic  inches,  and  8.3356 
pounds  of  water  at  62  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

A  British  imperial  gallon  holds  2'j'j.2'j^  cubic  inches,  and  10  pounds  of 
water  at  62  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Sea  water  (average)  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1.028,  boils  at  213.2  degrees 
F.,  and  weighs  64  pounds  per  cubic  foot  at  62  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

A  pressure  of  i  pound  per  square  inch  is  exerted  by  a  column  of  water 
2.3094  feet,  or  27.71  inches  high,  at  62  degrees  Fahrenheit. 


85 


EQUIVALENT  EVAPORATION   FROM  AND  AT   212°  F. 

FOR  purposes  of  comparison,  it  is  usual  to  reduce  the  actual  evapora- 
tive results  obtained  in  practice,  to  a  common  standard,  known  as 
^^  equivalent  evaporation  from  and  at  212 T     This  means  that  the 
temperature  of  the  feed  water  is  supposed  to  be  at  212  degrees, 
and  that  the  evaporation  takes  place  at  atmospheric  pressure,  or  jrom  212 
degrees,  the  equivalent  amount  of  water  being  calculated  which  would  be 
evaporated  under  such  conditions. 

In  both  cases  the  heat  imparted  to  the  water  is  the  same,  and  in  order 
to  find  the  "equivalent  evaporation,"  it  is  only  necessary  to  find  the  amount 
of  heat  actually  absorbed  by  the  water  in  being  converted  into  steam  in  the 
boiler,  and  divide  this  by  970.4,  the  latent  heat  of  steam  at  atmospheric 
pressure,  which  is  the  heat  required  to  evaporate  one  pound  of  water  "from 
and  at  212  degrees." 

For  example,  suppose  that  3000  pounds  of  water  are  evaporated  per 
hour  at  a  pressure  of  70  pounds,  the  feed  water  entering  the  boiler  at  100 
degrees  Fahrenheit.  By  reference  to  the  steam  tables,  it  is  found  that 
steam  at  70  pounds  gauge  jjressure  (84.7  absolute)  contains  1183.34  British 
thermal  units  per  pound  above  32  degrees ;  and  from  the  table  for  heat  in  the 
water,  it  is  found  that  each  pound  of  water  at  100  degrees  Fahrenheit  con- 
tains 67.97  British  thermal  units  above  32  degrees.  The  boiler  will  there- 
fore have  to  impart  to  each  pound  of  steam  generated,  the  difference 
between  these  quantities,  or  (i  183.34  -  67.97)  1 1 15.37  British  thermal  units. 
This  amount,  divided  by  970.4,  gives  1.1493,  or,  say,  1.15.  That  is,  the 
same  amount  of  heat  imparted  to  one  pound  of  water  at  100  degrees 
Fahrenheit,  in  converting  it  into  steam  at  70  pounds  pressure,  would 
evaporate  1.15  pounds  from  and  at  212  degrees  Fahrenheit;  so  that  3000 
pounds  evaporated  at  actual  conditions  are  equivalent  to  (1.15  X  3000) 
3450  pounds  from  and  at  212  degrees.  The  quantity  1.15  is  called  the 
factor  of  evaporation.     It  may  be  expressed   by  the  following  formula: 

F  = ,  in  which  //  equals  the  total  heat  in  steam  above  32  degrees  at 

boiler  pressure;  h  equals  the  heat  in  the  feed  water  above  32  degrees,  and 
970.4  equals  the  latent  heat  in  steam  at  atmospheric  pressure. 

For  convenient  reference,  the  table  on  page  87  gives  these  factors  for 
various  pressures,  and  temperatures  of  feed  water. 


86 


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f^ci   w   o    Ox   t--0   i/i-l-r^M   i-H   o   OX  r--o'Lo 

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to  O  O  O  >0  lO  LO  LO  -^  Tf  -t  ro  (v;  ro  r^  ri  oi  c-t  h- 
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WOir^MlHMMKHMKHMI-4MOCOOOO 

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•-•   w   O   OXO   lO-froM   >-•   O   OX   r-O   lo^  — 

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w  O  ox  r^vOio-^^ri  i-i  o  ox  r-^o  in  t  ^ 

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MOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOO 

rO^lOO   r-X    OO    w   M    rOTj-loO   t-*X   OO   »-< 

MMMMMMMMMMNN 


DRY  STEAM— USE  OF  THE  STEAM  CALORIMETER 


STEAM  without  moisture  is  the  essential  product  of  a  well-designed 
steam  generator.  It  may  be  saturated  in  quality,  or  superheated, 
but  it  must  not  be  wet. 

Dry  steam,  or,  as  it  is  called  technically,  saturated  steam  (mean- 
ing steam  saturated  with  heat),  is  steam  in  its  natural  or  normal  condition. 
If  any  heat  is  added  it  immediately  becomes  superheated,  and  it  should  be 
noted  that  it  cannot  become  superheated  until  it  has  first  become  dry, 
while  if  any  heat  is  taken  away  from  saturated  steam,  a  portion  of  it  is 
at  once  condensed  to  the  form  of  moisture.  The  steam  that  remains,  how- 
ever, is  itself  dry,  and  what  we  know  as  wet  steam  is  really  a  mixture  of 
dry  steam  and  small  particles  of  moisture  which  are  mechanically  mixed 
with  it  and  carried  along  in  the  current.  The  question  of  making  dry 
steam,  therefore,  is  one  of  properly  liberating  the  bubbles  of  steam  from  the 
surrounding  water  so  that  none  of  the  latter  shall  be  entrained  with  it. 

As  is  well  known,  the  immediate  predecessor  of  the  water-tube  boiler 
in  marine  work  was  the  cylindrical  or  Scotch  boiler  of  large  diameters. 

The  Babcock  &  Wilcox  Boiler  is  built  with  a  steam  and  water  drum  of 
less  than  four  feet  diameter,  and  herein  is  one  of  its  great  elements  of  light- 
ness and  safety.  But,  on  account  of  this  smaller  diameter,  and  consequent 
reduction  of  liberating  surface,  there  might  be  apprehension  that  the  qual- 
ity of  the  steam  would  be  affected  and  that  considerable  moisture  would 
be  entrained.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case,  as  shown  by  the  following 
statements  of  prominent  engineers  who  have  obtained  their  knowledge  from 
actual  tests  and  experience  with  the  boiler : 

"  The  moisture  in  the  steam  is  so  infinitesimal  as  to  be  entirely  ncgligil)le  in 
the  final  results." — Lieutenants  B.  C.  Bryan  and  IT.  IT.  White,  U.  S.  N. 

"  The  calorimctric  experiments  show  the  steam  to  have  been  perfectly  dry." 
— Chas.  E.  Emery,  Ph.D. 

"Percentage  of  moisture  in  steam — ^part  of  i  jjcr  cent. — -.3  to  .5." — /.  M. 
Whitham,  Mem.  Am.  Sac.  M.  E. 

"At  the  highest  rates  of  forcing,  the  moisture  entrained  in  the  steam  never 
exceeded  3<4  of  i  per  cent." — Ernest  H.  Peabody,  Mem.  Am.  Soc.  M.  E. 

"Moisture  in  steam,  0.48  of  i  per  cent.,  or  practically  dry." — Robert  Logan, 
N.A. 

"  The  calorimeter  showed  .72  of  i  per  cent,  of  moisture  at  the  throttle  valve, 
or  practically  dry  steam." — /.  E.  Denton,  Prof,  of  Mechanical  Engineering,  Stevens 
Institute  of  Technology. 

Even  more  convincing  is  a  study  of  the  reports  of  tests  in  the  follow- 
ing pages,  where  it  will  be  found  that,  at  moderate  rates  of  combustion,  the 
steam  is  dry,  and,  even  when  evaporating  16  pounds  of  water  per  sq.  ft.  of 


heating  surface  (test  of  "Wyoming  "  boiler  with  oil  fuel) ,  there  was  only  eight- 
tenths  of  one  per  cent,  of  moisture.  The  combustion  was,  in  this. case, 
equivalent  to  burning  75  lbs.  of  coal  per  sq.  ft.  of  grate  surface  per  hour. 

The  following  experiment,  made  several  years  ago  at  the  works  of  this 
company,  serves  to  show  the  manner  in  which  steam  is  separated  from  the 
water  in  this  type  of  boiler,  and  passes  in  a  dry  state  to  the  perforated  dry 
pipe  connected  with  the  outlet  from  the  drum.  It  also  proves  that  the  size 
of  the  drum  has  little  to  do  with  the  dryness  of  the  steam,  and  that  a  very 
small  liberating  surface  in  connection  with  a  very  little  time  is  all  that  is 
needed  to  insure  the  proper  liberation  of  the  steam  from  the  water. 

In  order  to  observe  the  phenomena  going  on  inside  the  steam  drum 
of  a  boiler  in  service,  a  peep-hole,  filled  with  a  stout  piece  of  glass,  was 
made  in  each  drum-head,  opposite  the  space  between  the  return  circulating 
tubes  and  the  baffle  plate.  By  means  of  an  electric  arc  light  placed  at  one 
eyepiece,  the  interior  of  the  drum  was  illuminated  and  the  discharge  of 
each  of  the  circulating  tubes  distinctly  seen. 

When  the  boiler  was  steaming  rapidly,  with  ^i  inch  air  blast  in  the  ash 
pit,  the  observations  clearly  showed  that  each  of  the  circulating  tubes  was 
discharging  against  the  baffle  plate,  with  considerable  velocity,  a  stream  of 
solid  water  that  filled  the  tube  for  half  its  diameter. 


There  was  no  spray  or  mist  whatever,  showing  conclusively  that  the 
steam  had  entirely  separated  from  the  water  during  its  passage  through 
the  circulating  tubes,  which,  in  this  boiler,  were  only  50  inches  long  by  4 
inches  in  diameter.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  actual  steam  liberating  surface 
required  for  the  entire  boiler  was  less  than  that  contained  in  the  circulating 
tubes,  which  amounted  to  about  15  square  feet,  or  i  square  foot  to  every 
100  square  feet  of  heating  surface  in  the  boiler. 

After  striking  the  baffle  plate,  the  water  was  deflected  downward, 
mixing  with  the  main  body  of  water  in  the  drum,  while  the  steam  passed 


90 


around  the  ends  of  the  baffle  plate  into  the  steam  space  in  which  is  located 
the  dry  pipe. 

The  drum  itself  is  not  exposed  to  great  heat  in  this  type  of  boiler,  and 
the  water  in  it  is  not  agitated  in  any  way,  so  that  there  is  no  possibility  of 
water  or  spray  reaching  the  dry  pipe.  In  view  of  this  experiment,  it  is 
evident  that  the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  marine  boiler  cannot  furnish  anything 
but  dry  steam. 

In  any  ship  or  other  installation  of  boilers,  however,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  after  leaving  the  generator  the  steam  passes  at  once  into  a  system 
of  piping,  which,  even  if  well  covered,  is  always  being  more  or  less  cooled 
by  the  surrounding  air.  This  cooling  effect  necessarily  condenses  some  of 
the  steam  and  it  has  often  happened  that  samples  of  steam  have  been 
tested  which,  by  accident,  contain  some  of  this  condensation  from  the  sides 
of  the  pipe.  Such  tests  are  not  only  manifestly  unfair  to  the  boiler,  but 
are  very  misleading  in  their  results. 

METHOD  OF  TESTING  STEAM 

The  method  best  adapted  to  insure  obtaining  a  fair  sample  of  steam 
for  testing,  is  to  take  it  from  the  center  of  the  vertical  portion  of  the  steam 
pipe  as  near  the  boiler  as  possible. 
Use  a  straight  open-ended  nipple,  pro- 
vided with  a  long  thread  on  one  end  n^perforateo 

so  that  it  may  be  screwed  into  the  -  ,1  i  15  ""^       ^V-S-. 

steam  pipe  far  enough  to  bring  the  open  end  at  or 
near  the  center  of  the  current  of  steam  ascending  from 
the  boiler,  and  as  far  removed  as  possible  from  the  sides 
of  the  pipe,  which  are  always  coated  with  a  thin  film  of 
moisture.  Do  not  use  perforated  or  slotted  nipples,  as 
they  have  been  found  to  give  very  inaccurate  results. 

The  throttling  calorimeter,  first  devised  by  Prof.  C.  H.  Peabody,  of 
the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  (see  Journal  of  Franklm  In- 
stitute, August,  1888),  is  by  far  the  simplest  type  of  instrument  for  testing 
the  quality  of  steam,  and,  when  properly  used,  gives  very  accurate  results. 

There  have  been  numerous  forms  of  this  instrument,  one  of  the  simplest 
being  that  designed  by  Mr.  George  H.  Barrus,  of  Boston,  which  is  described 
below. 

Steam  is  taken  from  a  >2 -inch  pipe  provided  with  a  valve,  and  passed 
through  two  3^-inch  tees  situated  on  opposite  sides  of  a  ^-inch  flange 
union,  substantially  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  sketch.  A  thermometer 
cup,  or  well,  is  screwed  into  each  of  these  tees,  and  a  piece  of  sheet-iron, 
perforated  with  a  I -inch  hole  in  the  center,  is  inserted  between  the  flanges 
and  made  tight  with  rubber  or  asbestos  gaskets,  which  also  act  as  non- 


THERMOMETER  CUP 


91 


SIX  I'ROTKCTKI)  CKl'ISKKS 

"TACOMA,"  "  CLEVELAND," 

"  DENVER,"  "  GALVESTON," 

"CHATTANOOGA"  AND 

"DES    MOINES" 

Alt.  Kitted  with  Babcock  &  Wilcox 

UOII.ERS 

Armiigcment  of  Boiler  Rootns: 

Total  Heating  Surface       .       13200  sq.ft. 

Total  Grate  Surface  .  300  sq.  ft. 

Ratio  H.  S.  to  G.  S.,44:  i 


FRAME  42 

LOOKING  FORWARD 


92 


conductors  of  heat.  For  convenience,  a  union  is  placed  near  the  valve, 
as  shown;  and  the  exhaust  steam  may  be  led  away  by  a  short  i^-inch 
pipe,  shown  by  dotted  lines.  The  thermometer  wells  are  filled  with 
mercury  or  heavy  cylinder  oil,  and  the  whole  instrument,  from  the  steam 
main  to  the  i>4-inch  pipe,  is  well  covered  with  hair  felt. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  that  the  l-inch  orifice  does  not  become  choked 
with  dirt,  and  that  no  leaks  occur,  especially  at  the  sheet-iron  disc,  also  that 
the  exhaust  pipe  does  not  produce  any  back  pressure  below  the  fiange. 
Place  a  thermometer  in  each  cup,  and,  opening  the  y^-mch.  valve  wide,  let 
steam  flow  through  the  instrument  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes;  then  take 
frequent  readings  on  the  two  thermometers  and  the  boiler  gauge,  say  at 
intervals  of  one  minute. 

The  throttling  calorimeter  depends  on  the  principle  that  dry  steam  when 
expanded  from  a  higher  to  a  lower  pressure,  without  doing  external  work, 
becomes  superheated,  the  amount  of  superheat  depending  on  the  two  pres- 
sures. If,  however,  some  moisture  be  present  in  the  steam,  this  must 
necessarily  first  be  evaporated,  and  the  superheating  will  be  proportionately 
less.  The  limit  of  the  instrument  is  reached  when  the  moisture  present 
is  sufficient  to  prevent  any  superheating. 

Assuming  that  there  is  no  back  pressure  in  the  exhaust,  and  that 
there  is  no  loss  of  heat  in  passing  through  the  instrument,  the  total  heat  in 
the  mixture  of  steam  and  moisture  before  throttling,  and  in  the  super- 
heated steam  after  throttling,  will  be  the  same,  and  will  be  expressed  by 
the  equation 

H-^  =  1150.4  +  47  i.t  -  212) 

H  —  1150.4  —.47  {t  —  212)  ^^ 
or  X  =  — ^    -t       -r/   V    /  s^  jQQ 

in  which  :\:  =  percentage  of  moisture;  ii^  =  total  heat  above  32°  in  the 
steam  at  boiler  pressure ;  L  =  latent  heat  in  the  steam  at  boiler  pressure ; 
1 1 50.4  =  total  heat  in  the  steam  at  atmospheric  pressure;  /=  temperature 
shown  by  lower  thermometer  of  calorimeter;  212  =  temperature  of  dry 
steam  at  atmospheric  pressure. 

Theoretically  the  boiler  pressure  is  known  from  the  temperature  of 
the  upper  thermometer;  but,  owing  to  radiation,  etc.,  this  is  usually  too  low, 
and  it  is  better  to  use  the  readings  of  the  boiler  gauge,  if  correct,  or  better 
still  to  have  a  test  gauge  connected  on  the  >^-inch  pipe  supplying  the 
calorimeter. 

If  the  instrument  be  well  covered,  and  there  is  as  little  radiating  sur- 
face as  possible,  the  above  assumption  that  there  is  no  loss  of  heat  in  pass- 
ing through  the  instrument  may  be  nearly,  though  never  quite,  correct.     On 

93 


94 


the  other  hand  it  is  more  than  hkely  to  be  very  far  from  correct,  and,  to 
eHminate  any  errors  of  this  kind,  Mr.  Barrus  recommends  a  so-called 
"calibration"  for  dry  steam.  This,  again,  involves  the  assumption 
(which  is  open  to  some  doubt)  that  steam,  when  in  a  quiescent  state, 
drops  all  its  moisture  and  becomes  dry.  No  other  practical  method,  how- 
ever, has  been  proposed,  and  this  is,  therefore,  the  only  method  used  at 
the  present  time.  Some  engineers,  however,  refuse  to  make  any  cali- 
bration, but,  instead,  make  an  assumed  allowance  for  error. 

To  make  the  calibration,  close  the  boiler  stop  valve,  which  must  be  on 
the  steam  pipe  beyond  the  calorimeter  connection.  Keep  the  steam  pres- 
sure exactly  the  same  as  the  average  pressure  during  the  test,  for  at  least 
fifteen  minutes,  taking  readings  from  the  two  thermometers  during  the  last 
five  minutes.  The  upper  thermometer  should  read  precisely  the  same  as 
during  the  test,  and  the  lower  thermometer  should  show  a  higher  tempera- 
ture; this  reading  of  the  lower  thermometer  is  the  calibration  reading  for 
dry  steam,  which  we  will  call  T. 

Calculation  of  results,  allowing  for  radiation  by  calibration  method: 

47  {T  -  t) 

Formula,  x  =   X  loo 

L 

in  which  x  =  percentage  of  moisture;  7"=  calibration  reading  of  lower 
thermometer;  /  =  test  reading  of  lower  thermometer;  L  =  latent  heat  of 
steam  at  boiler  pressure. 

The  method  of  taking  a  sample  of  steam  from  the  main  is  of  the 
greatest  importance,  and  more  erroneous  results  are  due  to  improper  con- 
nections than  to  any  other  cause.  Use  only  a  plain,  open-ended  nipple 
projecting  far  enough  into  the  steam  pipe  to  avoid  collecting  any  conden- 
sation that  may  be  on  the  sides  of  the  pipe.  Take  care  that  no  pockets 
exist  in  the  steam  main  near  the  calorimeter,  in  which  condensation  can 
collect  and  run  down  into  sampling  nipple.  Remember  you  are  ascertain- 
ing the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  steam  and  not  measuring  the  conden- 
sation on  the  walls  of  the  steam  piping.  Make  connections  as  short  as 
possible. 

As  mentioned  above,  there  is  a  limit  in  the  range  of  the  throttling 
calorimeter  which  varies  from  2.88  per  cent,  at  50  pounds  pressure  to  7.17 
percent,  at  250  pounds.  When  this  limit  is  reached  a  small  separator  may 
be  interposed  between  the  steam  main  and  the  calorimeter,  which  will  take 
out  the  excess  of  moisture.  By  weighing  the  drip  from  the  separator  and 
ascertaining  its  percentage  of  the  steam  flowing  through,  and  adding  this  to 
the  percentage  of  moisture  then  shown  by  the  throttling  calorimeter,  the 
total  moisture  in  the  steam  may  be  ascertained.  It  is  seldom,  however, 
in  a  well-designed  boiler,  that  any  but  a  throttling  calorimeter  becomes 
necessary. 

95 


96 


ECONOMY  DUE  TO  THE  HEATING  OF  FEED  WATER 

THE  importance  of  heating  feed  water  before  delivering  it  to  a  boiler 
can  best  be  realized  by  considering  exactly  what  takes  place  during 
the  generation  of  steam.  As  explained  on  page  80,  the  total  heat 
in  steam  consists  partly  of  sensible  heat,  which  marks  the  boiling 
point  of  the  water,  and  partly  of  latent  heat,  which  converts  the  water 
into  steam.  Therefore,  in  generating  steam  in  a  boiler,  the  water  must  first 
be  heated  to  the  boiling  point  and  then  enough  heat  added  to  evaporate  it 
at  the  required  pressure. 

PERCENTAGE  OF  FUEL  SAVED  BY  HEATING  FEED  WATER 
(Pressure  i8o  pounds  per  gauge) 


Initial 

Final  Temperature — Degrees  Fahrenheit 

Degrees 

Fahrenheit 

120° 

140 

160° 

180° 

200° 

250° 

300° 

32° 

7-35 

9.0: 

I             10.69 

12.36 

14.04 

18.20 

22.38 

35 

7.12 

8.7c 

)             10.46 

12.14 

13.82 

18.00 

22.18 

40          ( 

5.72 

8.4 

[              10.09 

11.77 

13-45 

17-65 

21.86 

50 

5-93 

7  A 

5                9-32 

11.02 

12.72 

16.95 

21.19 

60 

5-13 

6.8. 

^           f^-55 

10.27 

11.97 

16.24 

20.52 

70 

I-31 

6.0- 

1-               7-77 

9.48 

II. 21 

15-52 

19.83 

80 

V4« 

5-2: 

J               6.96 

8.70 

10.44 

14-79 

19-13 

90 

2.63 

A-y 

)               6.14 

7.89 

9-65 

14.04 

18-43 

100 

1-77 

3-5- 

\               5-31 

7.08 

8.85 

13.28 

17.70 

no 

.89 

2.6i 

^               447 

6.25 

8.04 

12.50 

16.97 

120 

.00 

i.8( 

)               3.61 

5-41 

7.21 

11.71 

16.22 

130 

•9 

2.73 

4-55 

6.37 

10.91 

15-46 

140 

.0( 

)               1.84 

3-67 

5-51 

10.09 

14.68 

150 

•93 

2.78 

4-63 

9.26 

13-89 

160 

.00 

1.87 

3-74 

8.41 

13.09 

170 

■94 

2.83 

7-55 

12.27 

180 

.00 

1.91 

6.67 

11-43 

190 

.96 

5-77 

10.58 

200 

.00 

4.86 

9.71 

210 

3-92 

8.82 

The  rate  at  which  water  absorbs  heat  varies  slightly  as  its  density 
decreases,  but  for  rough  calculations  it  can  be  assumed  that  the  number  of 
degrees  Fahrenheit  which  a  pound  of  water  is  heated,  represents  the  number 
of  British  thermal  units  it  has  absorbed. 

Suppose,  therefore,  that  a  boiler  is  making  steam  at  180  pounds  gauge 
pressure  and  is  being  fed  with  water  at  60  degrees  Fahrenheit.  By  reference 
to  the  steam  tables,  we  find  that  the  boiling  point  at  180  pounds  gauge  pres- 
sure is  about  380  degrees  Fahrenheit,  and  the  latent  heat  equals  about  845  heat 
units.  When  the  water  goes  into  the  boiler,  therefore,  it  has  first  to  be  heated 
from  60  degrees  to  the  boiling  point,  which  requires  approximately  (380  —  60) 
320  heat  units.     This,  with  the  latent  heat  afterwards  added  to  convert  it 


97 


into  steam,  makes  a  total  of  (320  +  845)  1 165  heat  units  which  must  be  added 
to  each  pound  of  water  entering  the  boiler  to  make  one  pound  of  steam. 

If  instead  of  entering  the  boiler  at  60  degrees,  the  feed  water  were 
heated  to  200  degrees  Fahrenheit,  only  (380  —  200)  180  heat  units  would 
have  to  be  added  to  bring  it  to  the  boiling  point  instead  of  320  as  before, 
and  the  total  heat  added  per  pound  of  steam  would  be  (180  +  845)  1025 
instead  of  11 65  heat  units.  In  other  words,  to  each  pound  of  water  con- 
verted into  steam  the  boiler  would  now  have  to  add  only  88  per  cent,  of 
the  amount  of  heat  it  did  before,  and  12  per  cent,  of  the  coal  might  be 
saved,  or,  providing  the  same  amount  of  coal  was  burned  on  the  grates, 
it  would  make  nearly  14  per  cent,  more  steam  than  it  did  with  feed  water 
at  60  degrees.  The  table  on  page  97  shows  the  saving  that  may  be  expected 
by  heating  feed  water  various  amounts. 

Another  very  convincing  way  of  looking  at  this  matter  is  from  the  view 
of  engine  efficiency.  The  best  engine  yet  designed,  with  all  the  modern 
improvements  of  high  steam  pressure,  multiple  expansion,  condensers, 
etc.,  cannot  possibly  use  more  than  one-fifth  of  the  heat  contained  in 
the  steam,  because  of  the  latent  heat  necessarily  discharged  in  the 
exhaust.  How  very  much  more  wasteful  then  must  be  the  pumps, 
blower  engines,  and  other  auxiliary  machinery  on  board  ship,  even  if,  as 
is  often  the  case,  they  exhaust  into  the  condenser. 

It  is  the  general  impression  that  auxiliaries  wdll  take  much  less  steam 
if  the  exhaust  is  turned  into  the  condenser,  thereby  reducing  the  back 
pressure.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  vacuum  is  rarely  registered  on  an  indicator  card 
taken  on  auxiliary  cylinders  unless  the  exhaust  connection  is  short  and  with- 
out bends,  long  pipes  and  many  angles  vitiating  the  effect  of  the  condenser. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  the  exhaust  steam  in  the  auxiliaries  can  be  used 
for  heating  the  feed  water,  all  the  latent  heat  of  this  steam,  except  what  is 
lost  by  radiation,  goes  back  to  the  boiler  and  is  saved  instead  of  being 
thrown  away  in  the  condensing  water  or  wasted  with  the  free  exhaust. 
Taking  the  whole  plant  into  consideration,  this  makes  the  auxiliary  machinery 
more  efficient  than  the  main  engine. 

For  illustration,  take  the  first  of  the  series  of  tests  of  the  steamship 
"  Pennsylvania,"  as  found  on  page  145.  The  total  amount  of  steam  furnished 
per  hour  was  20,407  pounds,  of  which  17,252  pounds  were  used  in  the  main 
engine  and  3155  in  the  auxiliaries,  i.e.,  the  auxiliaries  required  15.46  per  cent, 
of  the  total  steam.  Of  the  3155  pounds  of  auxiliary  steam,  139  pounds 
were  used  by  the  stoker  engines  and  exhausted  into  the  ash  pits,  leaving 
3016  pounds  that  exhausted  into  the  heater. 

The  feed  water  was  taken  from  the  hot  well  at  a  temperature  of  99.3 
degrees  Fahrenheit  and  pumped  through  a  closed  feed-water  heater,  where  it 
was  heated  to  222  degrees  Fahrenheit  by  means  of  the  exhaust  steam  from 
the  auxiliary  machinery.     From  this  heater  it  passed  to  the  boilers  and 

99 


100 


was  converted  into  steam  at  a  pressure  of  242  pounds.  The  auxiliaries 
exhausted  into  the  heater  at  about  3  pounds  back  pressure. 

By  referring  to  the  steam  tables,  it  will  be  found  that  the  3016  pounds 
of  steam  supplied  to  the  auxiliary  machinery  contained  3,624,930  British 
thermal  units  (120 1.9  X  3016).  At  3  pounds  back  pressure  the  same  amount 
of  steam  consumed  would  contain  3,480,162  British  thermal  units.  The 
difference  between  these  amounts — 166,483  British  thermal  units — is  all  that 
is  available  for  doing  useful  work,  and  as  no  engine  can  use  all  of  this  with- 
out waste,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  proportion  of  heat  that  is  converted  into 
work  is  very  small  indeed. 

If  the  exhaust  steam  from  the  auxiliary  machinery  had  been  turned 
into  the  condenser,  it  is  true  that  not  quite  so  many  pounds  would  have 
been  required  each  hour,  but  all  the  latent  heat  would  have  been  thrown 
away  in  the  condensing  water,  while  as  a  matter  of  fact,  by  sending  it  into 
the  feed-water  heater,  over  three-quarters  of  the  entire  3,480,162  British 
thermal  units  were  saved.  This  is  shown  by  the  heat  units  absorbed  by 
the  feed  water  which  was  heated  from  99.3  degrees  to  222  degrees,  a 
difference  of  122.7  degrees  Fahrenheit.  This  multiplied  by  the  number  of 
pounds  heated  gives  (20,407  X  122.7)  2,503,939  British  thermal  units  as  the 
actual  amount  of  heat  taken  from  the  exhaust  steam  of  the  auxiliaries  each 
hour  and  returned  to  the  boiler.  Of  the  remaining  976,123  British  thermal 
units,  part  is  lost  in  radiation,  condensation  in  the  pipes,  etc.,  and  part, 
amounting  to  nearly  600,000  British  thermal  units,  is  wasted  in  the  drips 
from  the  heater,  on  account  of  the  impossibility  of  cooling  the  condensed 
steam  much  below  222  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

It  may  be  noted,  further,  that  each  pound  of  coal  burned  contained 
11,790  British  thermal  units,  of  which  75.7  per  cent.,  or  8923  British  thermal 
units  were  utilized  in  making  steam.  If,  therefore,  2,503,939  heat  units 
had  not  been  saved  by  heating  the  feed  water,  it  would  have  been  necessary 
to  have  heated  the  same  by  an  additional  expenditure  of  280  pounds  of  coal 
per  hour,  thereby  increasing  the  total  coal  burned  in  the  plant,  per  indicated 
horse-power,  to  2.15  pounds  instead  of  1.92  pounds,  as  shown  by  the  test. 

There  is  another  reason  for  heating  feed  water,  aside  from  the  obvious 
saving  of  heat  units,  and  that  is  the  fact  that  the  boiler  steams  more  eco- 
nomically when  using  hot  feed  water  than  when  using  cold.  This  was 
demonstrated  experimentally  by  Kirkaldy.  of  England,  and  the  theory  ad- 
vanced by  M.  Normand  seems  very  plausible,  namely,  that  cold  water  checks 
the  circulation  in  the  boiler,  and  in  re-establishing  this  a  certain  amount  of 
heat  disappears  in  mechanical  work,  with  a  consequent  loss  in  evaporation. 

Water-tube  boilers  with  their  rapid  and  uniform  circulation,  are  not 
liable  to  injury  by  the  use  of  cold  feed  water,  but  the  above  points  make  it 
clear  that  cold  water  should  never  be  used  by  the  engineer  who  wishes  to 
obtain  the  highest  economy  from  his  plant. 


STEAM 

FROM 

SUPERHEATER 


STEAM   10  SUPERHEATER 


BABCOCK  &  WILCOX  SUPERHEATER  — PATENTED 


102 


Bx^BCOCK  &  WILCOX  SUPERHEATER 

THE  illustration  on  the  opposite  page  shows  a  cross-section  of  a 
Babcock  &  Wilcox  Marine  Boiler  fitted  with  a  superheater. 
From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  superheater  is  composed  of  a 
series  of  tubes  bent  into  U-shape  and  expanded  into  forged- 
steel  headers  which  run  across  the  boiler  at  right  angles  to  the  tubes.  The 
length  of  the  headers  and  the  number  of  tubes  depends  upon  the  degree 
of  superheat  required. 

The  superheater  is  placed  in  a  box  which  is  arranged  to  form  a  continua- 
tion of  the  first  and  second  passes  for  the  gases  of  combustion  as  they  pass 
around  the  tubes  of  the  boiler,  so  that  the  superheater  is  located  where  there 
is  a  great  difference  of  temperature  between  the  hot  gases  and  the  steam, 
and  not,  like  the  old-fashioned  ones,  in  the  uptake,  where  this  difference 
was  smaller. 

In  order  that  the  steam  as  it  passes  through  the  superheater  may  be 
thoroughly  exposed  to  the  hot  gases,  removable  baffles  or  division  plates 
are  put  in  the  headers  of  the  superheater,  two  in  the  upper  header  at  one 
quarter  of  the  length  from  each  end  and  one  in  the  lower  header  at  mid- 
length.  The  result  of  this  location  of  the  baffles  is  to  force  the  steam  as 
it  goes  through  the  superheater  tubes  to  pass  through  the  hot  gases  eight 
times,  thereby  giving  ample  opportunity  for  the  elevation  of  temperature  to 
the  desired  extent. 

Superheater  tubes  are  2  inches  in  diameter  and  are  arranged  in  groups  of 
four,  accessible  from  a  single  handhole  just  as  are  the  tubes  in  the  boilerheaders, 
thus  affording  ready  access  to  any  tube  for  expanding  or  renewal.  The  plates 
for  these  handholes  are  interchangeable  with  those  on  the  boiler  headers. 


DANISH  FISHERY  PROTECTION  S.  S.  "ISLAND'S  FALK."     BABCOCK  &  WILCOX  BOILERS. 

1200  Horse-power 

103 


ECONOMY  DUE  TO  SUPERHEATED  STEAM  IN 
MARINE  PRACTICE* 

By  Walter  M.  McFarlaxd,  AI.A.S.M.E. 

THE  theoretical  advantages  of  the  use  of  superheated  steam  were 
evident  when  the  principle  of  the  Carnot  heat  cycle  was  under- 
stood. In  the  early  days,  when  steam  pressures  were  low,  the 
economy  due  to  a  very  much  higher  initial  temperature  with 
no  increase  of  pressure  was,  of  course,  obvious.  Accordingly,  a  number  of 
plants  were  installed  using  superheated  steam.  On  the  whole,  these 
early  installations  were  not  practical  successes,  on  account  of  the  rapid 
corrosion  of  the  superheaters,  although  the  heat  economy  was  obtained. 
In  those  days  the  causes  of  corrosion  were  not  properly  understood  so 
that  the  measures  taken  to  prevent  corrosion  often  increased  it. 

In  more  recent  years,  since  the  means  for  preventing  corrosion  are 
fairly  well  known,  the  attractiveness  of  the  benefit  to  be  derived  from  super- 
heating has  led  to  its  reintroduction. 

An  excellent  article  by  Capt.  C.  A.  Carr,  U.  S.  N.,  published  in  the 
Journal  oi  the  American  Society  of  Naval  Engineers  for  Februar>^  191 1, 
gives  a  great  deal  of  information  with  respect  to  land  plants,  and  will  repay 
very  careful  study.  Speaking  generally,  it  is  considered  that  with  steam 
turbines  of  modern  design  and  carrying  from  175  to  200  pounds  steam 
pressure,  there  is  a  saving  in  steam  consumption  of  about  i  per  cent,  for 
each  10  degrees  of  superheat. 

About  ten  years  ago,  Capt.  Augustus  B.  Wolvin,  then  the  manager 
of  a  number  of  steamboat  lines  on  the  Great  Lakes,  and  who  has  been 
one  of  the  pioneers  in  the  adoption  of  improvements  in  marine  machinery 
tending  to  economy,  installed  Babcock  &:  Wilcox  boilers  and  superheat- 
ers in  one  of  the  vessels  under  his  control,  and  followed  this  by  similar  in- 
stallations on  several  other  vessels.  One  of  these,  the  "James  C.  Wallace,  " 
was  subjected  to  a  test  by  a  board  of  naval  engineer  officers,  and  showed 
a  saving  in  coal  of  about  9  per  cent.,  with  an  average  superheat  at  the 
engine  of  about  85  degrees.  The  Bureau  of  Steam  Engineering  of  the 
United  States  Navy  took  up  this  subject,  and  in  1904  ordered  Babcock  & 
Wilcox  boilers  and  superheaters  to  replace  the  old  cylindrical  boilers  on  the 
"  Indiana. "  This  was  followed  by  installations  of  similar  boilers  and  super- 
heaters on  the  "  Massachusetts"  and  the  "New  York"  (now  "  Saratoga")  in 
the  way  of  replacements,  and  on  the  "Michigan,"  "South  Carolina," 
"Prometheus,"  "Vestal,"  "Delaware,"  "North  Dakota,"  "Texas."  and 
"New  York"  (new),  new  vessels.  In  1905  boilers  and  superheaters  from 
the  same  makers  were  ordered  for  the  steamship  "Creole,"  with  respect  to 
*  Abbreviated  from  International  Marine  Engineering. 

104 


whose  performance  some  interesting  data  will  be  given  later  on.  The 
Pennsylvania  Railroad  has  always  shown  a  desire  to  get  the  safest  and  most 
efficient  machinery  in  its  marine  service,  and  in  1909  ordered  from  this  con- 
cern boilers  and  superheaters  for  three  of  their  large  tugs,  the  "Johns- 
town," "Wilmington,"  and  " Harrisburg, "  which  have  given  great 
satisfaction  and  economy  in  service.  The  steam  yacht  "IdaHa"  also  has  a 
boiler  and  superheater  supplied  by  this  same  firm. 

Table  IX.  gives  the  performance  of  the  steamship  "Creole,"  which  is 

TABLE  IX.— ECONOMY  DUE  TO  SUPERHEATED  STEAM— MERCHANT  VESSELS 


Name  of  vessel 

Date  of  tests      

Length,  feet 

Beam,  feet 

Draft,  feet 

Tonnage,  gross 

Tonnage,  net 

Cylinders,  diameter  and  stroke 

L  H.  P 

Boiler  pressure,  pounds 

Kind  of  boilers 

Ratio  of  superheating  to  evaporating  surface 

per  cent 

*Av.  coal  per  trip  for  five  round  trips,  tons  .  . 
Percentage  of  saving  by  use  of  B.  &  W.  boiler 

and  superheater 

Av.  coal  per  trip  for  two   round   trips,  each 

vessel,  in  October,  19 10 

Percentage  of  saving  by  use  of  B.  &  W.  boiler 

and  superheater 


Creole 


1910 
407 

53 
26.7 

6,754 

4.302 

(2)  27^4, 46}  2,  79.42 

7,000 

210 

Babcock  &  Wilcox 

with  superheaters. 

15-5 
1,149 

ti6.38 
1,206 
ti745 


Momus  and  Antilles 


I 908-9- 10 
410 

53 
25.6 

6,878 

4,326 

(1)34,57,104,  63 

7,500 

2IO 

Scotch,  no 
superheater. 


1,374 


1,461 


*  The  "Creole's"  trips  were  in  summer  of  1910;  those  of  the  other  ships  are  their  most  eco- 
nomical trips  in  summers  of  1908,  1909,  and  19 10. 

t  The  improved  economy  is  due  partly  to  greater  efficiency  of  boilers  of  "  Creole"  and  partly 
to  superheat.     See  text  for  analysis  and  discussion. 

fitted  with  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boilers  and  superheaters,  as  compared 
with  the  performance  of  her  two  sister  ships,  the  "Momus"  and  "Antilles,  " 
which  have  ordinary  cylindrical  boilers  without  superheat.  As  shown  by 
the  table,  the  hulls  are  practically  identical.  The  "Creole"  has  twin  screw 
engines  of  about  7000  horse-power,  while  the  "Momus"  and  "Antilles" 
have  single  screw  engines  of  about  7500  horse-power.  All  three  ships  carry 
the  same  steam  pressure — about  210  pounds.  The  "Creole"  was  originally 
(1905)  fitted  with  Curtis  turbines,  but  the  speed  was  too  low  (i5/^  knots)  to 
permit  economical  use  and  they  were  removed.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  so  far 
as  there  is  any  advantage  in  engine  economy  it  should  be  with  the  "  Momus  " 
and  "Antilles, "  which  have  each  a  single  engine  of  about  the  same  power  as 
the  aggregate  of  the  two  engines  on  the  "Creole,"  thereby  reducing   the 


105 


losses  due  to  cylinder  condensation.  The  engines  are  all  triple  expansion 
and  of  excellent  design.  The  "Creole's  "  first  trip  with  her  new  engines  was 
made  in  the  spring  of  1910.  Two  comparisons  are  given,  one  of  five  round 
trips  of  the  "Creole"  in  the  summer  of  1910,  as  compared  with  five  round 
trips  of  each  of  the  others,  obtained  by  taking  their  best  performances 
in  the  three  summers  of  1908,  1909,  and  1910.  The  second  comparison  is 
between  two  round  trips  of  all  three  vessels  made  in  the  month  of  October, 
1 910.  They  run  over  the  same  route  from  New  York  to  New  Orleans,  and, 
as  the  hulls  are  identical  and  the  engines  designed  and  built  by  the  same 
firm,  the  only  material  difference  is  in  the  boilers  and  superheat.  The  table 
shows  that  the  "Creole"  operates  with  about  17  per  cent,  less  fuel  per 
round  trip  than  her  sister  ships.  The  average  superheat  carried  is  about 
60  degrees,  from  which  a  saving  of  about  6  per  cent  would  be  expected. 
It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  there  is  a  distinct  gain  in  economy  due  to 
the  use  of  the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boiler,  as  contrasted  with  the  cylindrical 
or  Scotch  boiler. 

In  an  article  by  the  late  Admiral  George  W.  Melville,  U.  S.  N.,  pub- 
lished in  the  Engineering  Magazine  for  January,  191 2,  are  given  reports  of 
very  accurate  tests  of  Scotch  boilers*  and  of  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boilers  made 
by  boards  of  navy  officers  and  committees  of  independent  engineers,  so 
that  the  reliability  of  the  data  is  beyond  question.  These  tests  showed 
that,  at  the  rate  of  combustion  obtaining  in  these  vessels,  the  Babcock  & 
Wilcox  boiler  shows  an  efficiency  of  about  74  per  cent.,  as  against  from  62 
to  67  per  cent,  (average  64.5  per  cent.)  for  the  Scotch  boiler.  Working  out 
the  saving  due  to  this  greater  efficiency,  it  comes  to  11.7  per  cent,  and 
this  subtracted  from  17.45  per  cent.,  the  total  saving,  leaves  5.75  per  cent,  as 
the  saving  due  to  superheat,  which  agrees  quite  well  with  the  rough  general 
rule  of  I  per  cent,  saving  for  each  10  degrees  of  superheat. 

Table  X.  gives  the  performance  of  four  United  States  naval  vessels,  all 
of  the  same  displacement  and  approximately  the  same  power,  and  all  fitted 
with  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boilers.  The  "  Kansas  "  and  the  "  New  Hampshire  " 
have  no  superheaters,  while  the  "Michigan"  and  the  "South  Carolina" 
are  fitted  with  superheaters.  The  performance  of  these  four  ships  is  very 
interesting,  showing  a  saving,  based  on  the  average  of  the  two  ships,  with 
superheaters  as  contrasted  with  the  two  without,  of  18.52  per  cent.  In  this 
connection  it  is  interesting  to  note  the  remarks  of  Commander  Henry  C. 
Dinger,  U.  S.  N.,  formerly  editor  of  the  Journal  of  the  America)!  Society  of 
Naval  Engineers,  who  says  with  respect  to  the  better  performance  of  the 
ships  with  superheaters: 

"This  shows  a  gain  of  about  16  per  cent,  over  previous  navy  practice;  of  this 
gain  one  half  may  be  assigned  to  the  use  of  superheated  steam,  and  the  other 
due  to  reduction  of  clearance  and  better  cylinder  proportions." 
*This  report  is  reproduced  on  p.  58. 

106 


TABLE  X.— ECONOMY  DUE  TO  SUPERHEATED  STEAM.     OFFICIAL  TRIALS  OF 
UNITED  STATES  NAVAL  VESSELS 


Name  of  Vessel 


Builders 


Date  of  trial   ■    ■    • 

Displacement  on  trial,  tons 

Twin  screw  engines,   diameter   and  stroke 

of  cylinders,  inches 

Kind  of  boilers       

Evaporating  surface  in  use,  square  feet  . 
Superheating  surface  in  use,  square  feet  . 
Ratio  superheating  to  evaporating  surface, 

per  cent 

Heating  surface,  total  square  feet 
Grate  surface,  total  square  feet 
Ratio  evaporating  to  grate  surface 
Speed,  average  for  trial  (4  hours) 
Revolutions,  average  per  minute  (4  hours) 
Steam  pressure  at  boilers,  gauge,  pounds  . 
Steam    pressure    at     high-pressure    steam 

chest,  gauge,  pounds 

Steam    pressure,    first    receiver,    absolute, 

pounds    

Steam  pressure,  second   receiver,  absolute, 

pounds    

Vacuum  in  condensers,  inches  of  mercury 
Superheat   at   high-pressure   chest,  degrees 

Fahrenheit 

I.  H.  P.  of  main  engines  only 

I.  H.  P.  of  all  auxiliaries  in  use      .... 

I.  H.  P.  total 

Coal  per  hour  per  I.  H.  P.  of  main  engines 
Coal  per  hour  per  I.  H.  P.  of  main  engines 

and  all  auxiliaries 

Coal  per  hour  per  square  foot  grate  surface 
Air  pressure  in  fire-rooms,  inches  of  water 


Kansas 


New  York 

Shipbuilding  Co. 

Dec.  14,  1906. 

16,000 

321^,53.(2)61;  48 

Babcock  &  Wilcox 

52,752. 

No  superheaters 


52,752 

1,097 

48.0  to  I 

18.004 
121.32 
278.2 

250.0 

106.5 

38.0 
28.0 

None 
19,302.00 

455-00 
I9.757-00 
1-779 

1-737 
31.21 
0.60 


New  Hampshire 


New  York 

Shipbuilding  Co. 

Dec.  20,   1907. 

16.145 

32^.53.  (2)61:48 

Babcock  &  Wilcox 

47,112 

No  superheaters 


42.8 


47.1 12 
1,100 
I  to  I 

18.162 
118.75 
246.00 


222.00 


32-20 
25.60 

None 
16,772.00 
495-00 
17,267.00 
1-785 

1-773 
27.21 
0.49 


Michigan 


New  York 

Shipbuilding  Co. 

June  10,  1909, 

16,064 

32,  52,  (2)  72:48 

Babcock  &  Wilcox 

42,432 

5. 174 

12.2 

47,606 

1,046 

40.6  to  I 

18.79 
119.46 
297.70 

246.00 

77.40 

8.10 
27.00 

85.70 

16,016.4s 

500.85 

16,517.30 

I-51 

1.46 

23.28 

0.67 


South  Carolina 


Wm.  Cramp  &  Son 

S.  &E.  B.Co. 

August  25,  1909. 

16,064 

32,  52,  (2)  72:48 

Babcock  &  Wilcox 

42,432 

S.174 

12.2 

47,606 

1,046 

40.6  to  I 

18.86 
121.28 
285.00 

241.00 

96.50 

35-10 
26.2 

47-5 
17,651.00 
706.00 
18,357-00 
1.395 

1. 341 
23.47 


In  October,  1909,  a  test  was  made  of  the  machinery  of  the  yacht  "  IdaHa  " 
with  superheated  steam.  She  has  a  four-cyhnder  triple-expansion  engine,  the 
cyHnder  diameters  being  11.5  inches,  19  inches,  (2)  22.7  inches  by  18  inches 
stroke.  All  the  cylinders  are  un jacketed  and  have  piston  valves.  There  is 
one  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boiler,  with  65  square  feet  of  grate  surface  and  2500 
square  feet  of  evaporating  surface  and  340  square  feet  of  superheating  sur- 
face. These  tests  are  notable  from  the  fact  that  the  weight  of  the  steam 
used  was  carefully  determined  by  weighing  the  steam  condensed  in  tanks  on 
carefully  standardized  platform  scales.  The  actual  duration  of  the  test  in 
each  case  was  about  2^  to  3  hours,  but  observations  were  made  every  15 
minutes.     The  results  are  given  in  Table  XI.     The  duration  of  the  experi- 

TABLE  XL— ECONOMY  OF  SUPERHEATED  STEAM.     TESTS  ON  YACHT 
"IDALIA."     SUMMARY  OF  TESTS 


Conditions 

Pressures 

Vacuum 

Temperatures 

Date,  1909 

Throttle 

First 
Receiver 

Second 
Receiver 

Feed 

Hotwell 

Oct.  II 

Oct.  14...  . 
Oct.  14.... 
Oct.  12...  . 
Oct.  13.... 

Saturated  

Superheat,  57°... 
Superheat,  88°... 
Superheat,  96°... 
Superheat,  105°.. 

190 
196 
201 
198 
203 

68.4 
66.0 
64.3 
61.9 
63.0 

9-7 

9-2 

8.7 
7-8 
8.4 

25-S 
25.9 
25-9 
25.4 

25-2 

201 

206 
205 
202 
200 

116. 0 
109-5 
115-0 
III. 5 

III.O 

R.  P.  M. 

I.  H.  P. 

Main 
Engine 

Water 

per 

Hour 

Total 

Water 

per 
I.  H.  P. 

Per- 
cent. 

Saving 
of 

Steam 

Date,  1909         Conditions 

Air 
Pump 

Circulat- 
ing 
Pump 

Main 
Engine 

Oct.  II...  .  Saturated 

Oct.  14.. ..  Superheat,  57°.. . 

Oct.  14 iSuperheat,  88°.. . 

Oct.  12.. ..  Superheat,  96°... 
Oct.  13..  ..  Superheat,  105°.. 

57 
56 
53 

54 

4-; 

196 
198 
196 
198 
197 

194-3 
191-5 
I9S-I 
191-5 
193-I 

512.3 
405-2 
521. 1 
408.3 
502.2 

9.397 
8,430 
8,234 
7,902 
7,790 

18.3 
17.0 
15-8 
15-8 
15.5 

7.10 
13.66 
13.66 
15.30 

io8 


ments  was  obviously  too  short  to  make  it  worth  while  to  attempt  to  measure 
the  coal.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  feed,  air,  and  circulating  pumps,  all  of 
which  are  independent,  discharge  their  exhaust  steam  into  the  main  con- 
denser, so  that  the  figures  given  for  steam  per  horse-power  include  the  steam 
used  by  these  auxiliaries,  as  well  as  by  the  main  engine,  while  the  horse- 
power is  of  the  main  engine  only. 

We  have  now  given  such  experimental  data  as  are  available  of  measure- 
ments of  coal  and  water  to  show  the  economy  of  superheating,  and,  as  stated 
above,  they  bear  out  the  rough  rule  that  there  is  about  i  per  cent,  in  saving 
of  fuel  for  each  lo  degrees  of  superheat. 

The  practical  effect  of  superheated  steam  is,  of  course,  to  give  a  greater 
thermal  efficiency  to  the  engine  in  which  it  is  used  and  reduce  the  number 
of  pounds  of  steam  required  per  horse-power.  The  question  has  frequently 
been  raised  whether  there  is  a  corresponding  saving  in  fuel.  Speaking 
generally,  it  may  be  asserted  that  with  superheaters  properly  designed  and 
located,  and  within  the  limit  of  superheat  ordinarily  used  in  marine  practice 
■ — 50  to  100  degrees — such  tests  as  have  been  made,  and  such  general  ex- 
perience as  has  been  gained,  tend  to  show  that  there  is  almost  exactly  the 
same  percentage  of  reduction  in  the  amount  of  fuel  used  as  in  the  amount  of 
steam  per  horse-power.  It  is  not  difficult  to  understand  why  this  should  be 
the  case  in  a  properly  designed  arrangement  of  superheaters.  In  all  the 
cases  cited,  and  these  are  the  only  ones  for  which  data  are  available,  the 
superheaters  are  used  with  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boilers.  As  is  well  known, 
a  system  of  baffling  is  used  in  these  boilers  which  causes  the  hot  gases  to 
cross  the  tubes  three  times  on  their  way  from  the  furnace  to  the  up-take. 
The  superheaters  are  placed  at  the  passage  from  the  first  to  the  second  pass, 
after  the  gases  have  crossed  the  tubes  once  and  before  they  cross  the  second 
time,  so  that  the  temperature  is  very  much  higher  than  in  the  case  of  the 
older  types  of  superheaters,  where  they  were  placed  in  the  up-take  like  a 
feed-water  heater.  The  experiments  which  have  been  made  on  these  boilers 
under  various  rates  of  combustion  show  that  the  temperature  where  the 
superheater  is  located,  when  burning  from  30  to  35  pounds  of  coal  per  square 
foot  of  grate,  would  be  about  1000  degrees  Fahrenheit,  while  the  temperature 
of  saturated  steam  of  200  pounds  is  388  degrees  Fahrenheit.  There  is  thus 
a  good  difference  in  temperature,  so  that  a  considerable  degree  of  super- 
heat is  obtained  with  a  moderate  amount  of  superheating  surface.  There 
are  still  the  second  and  third  passes  of  the  boiler  to  be  acted  upon  by  the 
hot  gases,  and  the  only  effect  is  to  reduce  slightly  the  temperature  of  the 
gases  in  the  up-take.  Hence  the  efficiency  of  boiler  and  superheater  is  at 
least  as  great  as  that  of  the  boiler  alone. 

The  examples  we  have  given  of  the  naval  vessels,  of  the  "  Creole  "  and  her 
sister  ships,  and  the  "Wallace,"  with  and  without  superheat,  all  show  results 
as  measured  in  coal,  while  the  "Idalia"  experiments  give  them  in  water. 

109 


None  of  these  experiments  has  the  conditions  absolutely  ideal  for  determining 
with  extreme  accuracy  the  exact  amount  of  gain  due  to  superheating,  because 
other  items  vary  besides  the  extent  of  superheat.  What  practical  men 
desire  to  know,  however,  is  not  results  to  the  last  decimal  point,  but  to  be 
reasonably  sure  that  there  is  a  decided  gain  due  to  superheating,  and  this 
has,  from  the  data  given,  been  shown  beyond  question. 

Obviously,  thoroughly  dry  steam,  as  against  very  moist,  would  be  a 
blessing  in  reciprocating  engines,  so  that  this,  of  course,  is  another  benefit  of 
superheating.  On  board  ship,  where  there  are  so  many  auxiliary  engines 
scattered  over  a  large  area,  and  many  of  them  simple  cylinders  following 
full  stroke,  it  can  readily  be  seen  that  the  use  of  superheated  steam  ought 
to  be  conducive  to  a  great  increase  of  economy.  In  the  central  stations  and 
power  houses  on  shore,  before  the  use  of  superheated  steam,  many  of  the 
valves  and  fittings  in  the  pipe  lines  were  of  cast  iron.  It  was  found  that 
superheat  of  loo  degrees,  or  higher,  caused  considerable  trouble,  due  to  dis- 
tortion of  the  cast-iron  fittings  and  inability  to  keep  the  valves  tight.  The 
general  practice  now  is  to  avoid  the  use  of  brass  or  cast  iron,  and  the  valve 
bodies  and  fittings  which  come  in  contact  with  superheated  steam  are  to  be 
of  cast  steel.  Valve  seats  are  made  of  bronze  with  a  large  percentage  of 
nickel,  or  of  Monel  metal,  which  is  a  natural  bronze  of  somewhat  similar  com- 
position. The  navy  is  now  using  Monel  metal  valves  and  seats.  With 
these  precautions,  experience  has  shown  that  superheated  steam  up  to  loo 
degrees  can  be  used  with  great  satisfaction  as  far  as  practical  service  is  con- 
cerned, with  no  increased  cost  of  repairs  and  with  decided  increase  in 
efficiency. 


.11 


k;    r 


REBOILRRING   THE  UNITED  STATES  MONITORS 

AT  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  with  Spain,  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment found  it  necessary  to  commission  every  available  ship 
then  in  ordinary;  among  these  vessels  were  the  old  single  turret 
monitors,  which  were  capable  of  doing  good  service  as  harbor 
defence  vessels,  provided  they  could  be  reboilered  at  once. 

The  contract  for  this  work  on  the  "  Canonicus,"  "  Mahopac"  and  "Man- 
hattan," stationed  at  League  Island  Navy  Yard,  Philadelphia,  was  awarded 
to  The  Babcock  &  Wilcox  Company,  and  the  first  two  vessels  were  made 
ready  for  steam  in  thirty  days  and  the  third  in  forty-two  days  after  the 
order  to  proceed  with  the  work  was  received. 

As  the  boilers  were  built  in  sections,  the  Government  saved  much  time 
and  expense  by  passing  them  into  the  vessels  through  the  seven-foot  armored 
funnel.     Cutting  of  the  decks  was  thereby  entirely  avoided. 

Originally,  each  monitor  was  fitted  with  two  fiat-sided  Stimers  fire- 
tubular  boilers,  one  on  either  side  of  a  fore  and  aft  fire-room.  As  soon  as 
one  old  boiler  was  cut  up  and  removed,  the  work  of  installing  the  new 
boilers  began,  so  that  construction  progressed  on  one  side  of  the  ship  while 
the  second  boiler  was  being  demolished  on  the  other.  The  new  boilers  con- 
tained a  total  of  6000  square  feet  of  heating  surface  and  200  square  feet  of 
grate. 

Steam  was  supplied  to  a  pair  of  horizontal,  crank-and-lever,  Ericsson 
engines,  having  cylinders  48  inches  in  diameter  and  24  inches  stroke.  To 
economize  space  and  obtain  a  low  center  of  gravity,  the  cylinders  were  placed 
athwartships  on  the  same  axial  line,  and  as  both  were  fitted  with  16-inch 
trunk  pistons,  the  effective  annular  area  of  the  crank  end  was  equivalent 
to  that  of  a  circle  45  inches  in  diameter.  In  order,  therefore,  to  equalize 
the  power  developed  on  each  side  of  the  piston,  it  was  necessary  to  allow  the 
steam  to  follow  further  on  the  trunk  end  than  on  the  head  end. 

As  the  engines  were  constructed  before  the  advent  of  high  pressures, 
only  50  pounds  initial  could  be  carried  in  the  cylinders,  although  the  boilers 
were  constructed  for  a  working  pressure  of  1 75  pounds. 

It  is  conceded  by  the  best  authorities  that  the  time  employed  in  building 
and  installing  the  boilers  is  the  quickest  on  record,  and,  as  to  steaming, 
the  Navy  Department  states:  "It  is  a  source  of  satisfaction  that  the  per- 
formance of  these  vessels  with  the  new  boilers  exceeded  that  obtained  when 
the  vessels  were  first  built." 


113 


"4 


EXAMPLES  OF  DURABILITY 


IN  the  earlier  editions  of  Alarine  Steam  it  was  thought  well  to  insert  a 
few  pages  giving  some  examples  of  the  durability  and  small  amount 
of  repairs  required  for  Babcoek  &  Wilcox  Boilers,  inasmuch  as  the 
mistaken  idea  (already  referred  to  on  previous  pages  of  this  edition) 
prevailed  to  some  extent  that  the  boiler  is  delicate  and  requires  very  care- 
ful handling.  As  already  shown  by  comparing  the  scantlings  of  the  Bab- 
cock  &  Wilcox  Boiler  with  those  of  the  cylindrical  boiler,  it  is  easily  seen 
that  the  former  is  even  more  rugged  in  those  parts  which  give  out  first, 
namely,  the  tubes,  than  the  latter. 

Instances  were  quoted  in  the  earlier  editions  of  the  large  amount  of 
steaming  which  had  been  done  by  various  vessels  with  few  or  no  repairs,  but 
there  had  not  then  been  a  sufficiently  long  interval  since  the  installation  of 
the  boilers  to  give  the  time  element  its  due  weight.  In  1910,  letters  were 
written  to  users  of  Babcoek  &  Wilcox  Marine  Boilers  to  get  expressions  of 
opinion  as  to  the  durability  of  and  general  satisfaction  with  the  boilers,  and 
some  specimen  extracts  from  the  answers  will  be  instructive. 
The  chief  engineer  of  a  large  Lake  steamer  says : 

"We  have  two  of  your  boilers  that  have  been  in  use  for  eleven  years. 
They  have  always  given  plenty  of  steam  and  we  have  had  no  trouble  in  keep- 
ing up  the  boilers." 

Another  case  is  that  of  a  dredge  employed  by  the  Engineer  Corps  of  the 
Army  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  There  are  two  boilers  with  oil  fuel.  These 
have  been  in  use  for  five  years,  working  with  a  pressure  of  200  pounds. 
The  total  cost  of  repairs  for  the  two  boilers  for  the  five  years  has  been 
about  three  hundred  eighty-five  dollars  ($385.00)  and  the  report  is  that 
the  general  performance  of  the  boilers  has  been  highly  satisfactory  and 
economical. 

In  connection  with  the  fire-boats  "Daniel  T.  Sullivan"  and  "David 
Scannel,"  of  which  illustrations  are  given  elsewhere,  the  consulting  engineer 
who  selected  Babcoek  &  Wilcox  Boilers  for  them  says: 

"I  will  state  that  these  boilers  were  selected  because  of  the  exceedingly 
low  cost  of  maintaining  boilers  of  the  same  size  and  capacity  in  two  towboats, 
which  have  been  operated  for  a  number  of  years  on  San  Francisco  Bay  under  my 
observation.  The  boiler  on  each  of  these  boats  has  about  2770  square  feet  of 
heating  surface  and  is  called  upon  to  evaporate  from  12,000  to  14,000  pounds  of 
steam  per  hour.  During  the  last  eight  years,  the  expense  of  maintaining  one 
of  these  boilers  has  not  exceeded  $20.00  per  year." 

Babcoek  &  Wilcox  boilers  were  installed  on  the  fire-boat  "W.  S.  Grat- 
tan"  in  1900.     In  1910,  the  Buffalo  Fire  Department  wrote, 


1 1 6 


"We  wish  to  advise  that  Ave  have  not  cut  down  the  steam  pressure  on 
these  boilers  but  still  maintain  a  pressure  of  225  pounds.  These  boilers  have 
given  entire  satisfaction." 

Inquiry  has  recently  been  received,  after  fourteen  years  of  service,  from 
one  of  the  early  installations  on  the  Pacific  Coast  for  some  new  headers, 
thus  giving  some  idea  of  the  durability  of  this  part  of  the  boiler. 

The  early  installations  of  boilers  on  the  Great  Lakes  are  running  with 
the  original  tubes,  so  that,  under  the  conditions  there  obtaining,  the  life  of 
the  tubes  has  been  at  least  twelve  or  thirteen  years. 

The  best  possible  testimony,  however,  to  the  durability  of  the  boilers 
and  general  satisfaction  with  them  is  a  repetition  of  orders  from  users  who 
have  had  long  experience  with  them.  We  have  recently  had  the  ninth 
repeat  order  from  one  firm  which  has  been  using  our  boilers  for  the  last 
ten  years. 

We  have  also  received  orders  recently  for  three  separate  sets  of  boilers 
from  a  large  corporation  which  has  had  ten  years'  experience  with  the  first 
installations,  and,  prior  to  these  last  orders,  had  placed  our  boilers  in  nine 
vessels. 

The  Municipal  Ferry  of  New  York  has  just  made  a  contract  for  a  new 
boat  with  our  boilers  after  nearly  ten  years'  experience  with  them  on  five 
others,  the  largest  and  fastest  ferry-boats  in  the  world. 

After  six  years  experience  with  our  boilers  in  two  fire-boats,  the  Fire 
Department  of  New  York  City  is  using  them  again  in  a  new  fire-boat  just 
completed. 

After  investigating  the  experience  in  New  York,  Buffalo  and  San 
Francisco,  the  Boston  Fire  Department  installed  our  boilers  in  a  new  fire- 
boat  and  to  replace  an  old  shell  boiler  in  another. 

An  order  for  four  boilers  was  placed  with  us  this  year  by  a  user  who 
has  had  nearly  twenty  years'  experience  with  our  boilers,  on  a  large  number 
of  vessels. 

All  of  the  foregoing  instances  are  in  the  merchant  service,  where  the 
weight-saving  feature  of  the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boiler  is  not  so  important 
as  in  war  vessels.  The  constant  succession  of  orders  for  vessels  of  the 
United  States  and  foreign  navies  is  ample  proof  of  the  satisfaction  they 
have  given.  Every  new  battleship  of  the  United  States  Navy  launched 
since  1901  has  Babcock  &  Wilcox  Boilers,  without  mentioning  the  numerous 
armored  and  protected  cruisers  and  other  vessels.  A  majority  of  the 
"dreadnought"  battleships  of  the  world  are  fitted  with  these  boilers,  and 
the  largest  boiler  installation  in  any  vessel,  naval  or  merchant,  is  87,500 
horse-power  of  Babcock  &  Wilcox  Boilers  in  the  battle-cruiser  "Tiger"  of 
the  British  Navy, 


117 


FULL-SIZE  SECTIOXAL   MODEL 
De.akxm.nt  ok  .^L^K,^.H  Encneerkvu,  United  States  Xaval  Academy 


Ii8 


CORROSION-CAUSES  AND  PREVENTIVE  MEASURES 

AS  the  life  of  a  boiler  mainly  depends  upon  the  rate  of  progress  of 
the  corrosion  of  its  pressure  parts,  the  prevention  or  delay  of  this 
destructive  action   is  one  of  the  most    important   duties  of  the 
intelligent  engineer. 
Not  only  should  the  subject  be  studied  in  its  various  aspects,  but 
the  greatest  care  and  watchfulness  are  necessary  in  order  to  successfully 
stay  the  advances  of  this  subtle  force. 

The  principal  causes  of  corrosion  of  iron  and  steel  boilers,  in  sea-going 
vessels,  can  be  classified  as  follows: 
1st.     Use  of  sea  water. 

2d.     Acidity — the  use  of  animal  or  vegetable  oils  in  the  steam  cylinder. 
3d.     Admixture  of  air  with  the  feed  water. 
4th.     Galvanic  action. 

Each  of  these  causes  of  corrosion,  and  means  of  preventing  or  remedying 
them,  will  be  considered  separately. 

USE  OF  SEA  WATER 

Salt  water  is  known  to  be  a  solvent  of  iron  or  steel,  and  when  boiled 
under  high  pressure  the  magnesium  chloride,  about  250  grains  of  which  are 
contained  in  every  gallon,  becomes  highly  corrosive. 

ANALYSIS  OF  SEA  WATER 

Carbonate  of  lime 9.79  grains  per  gallon 

Sulphate  of  lime 114.36  grains  per  gallon 

Sulphate  of  magnesium 134-86  grains  per  gallon 

Chloride  of  magnesium 244.46  grains  per  gallon 

Chloride  of  sodium 1706.00  grains  per  gallon 

Total  solids 2209.47  grains  per  gallon 

Under  certain  conditions,  particularly  in  the  process  of  corrosion,  the 
water  becomes  acid  by  the  dissociation  of  magnesium  chloride  into  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  magnesia;  the  acid,  in  contact  with  iron  not  protected  by 
scale,  forms  an  iron  salt  which,  at  the  very  moment  of  formation,  is  neu- 
tralized by  the  free  magnesia  in  the  water,  thereby  precipitating  oxide  of 
iron  and  reforming  magnesium  chloride.  Thus  it  is  easily  seen  that  free 
iron  is  never  found  in  solution  in  boiler  water.  The  black  and  red  deposits 
formed  in  boilers  which  have  had  an  excess  of  sea  water  in  them  are  generally 
iron  oxides.  The  red  is  found  when  there  is  much  air  allowed  to  get  into 
the  boiler;  the  black  when  little  or  no  air  is  present. 

Just  here  comes  in  one  of  the  most  astonishing  neglects  of  marine  en- 
gineering.    It  is  the  neglect  of  modernizing  the  condensers  of  sea-going  ships. 

119 


To  deliberately  install  an  expensive  and  well-constructed  boiler,  and 
as  deliberately  permit  the  use,  in  connection  therewith,  of  condensers  known 
to  be  subject  to  leakage,  and  constructed  so  as  to  make  quick  and  efficient 
repair  extremely  difficult,  is  at  least  commercially  criminal.  There  is  far 
more  room  for  improvement  in  design  and  construction  of  the  condensers 
than  in  marine  boilers,  and  the  great  importance  of  the  former  is  most  ob- 
vious when  the  first  cause  of  corrosion  is  properly  considered. 


/  _, 


S.  S.   "ADELINE  SMITH  " 
Owners:  Smith  LuMnER  Co.     Badcock  &  Wilcox  Boilers,  1800  Indicated  Horse-power 

Preventive. — To  prevent  salt  feed,  the  condensers  must  be  tight, 
and  an  ample  provision  made  for  fresh  water  "make-up"  either  by  carrying 
a  supply  in  bulk  or  by  installing  an  adequate  evaporating  plant,  designed 
and  located  so  as  to  operate  without  priming. 

If  salt  feed  does  enter  the  boiler,  the  quantity  must  not  be  increased 
by  "blowing  off"  water  from  the  boiler,  at  least  not  until  the  saturation  has 
reached  J'^.  A  high  saturation  is  preferable  to  a  continuous  renewal  of 
salt  feed,  aside  from  the  heat  loss  of  blowing  off. 

A  light  scale  will  reduce  the  evaporative  efficiency  of  a  boiler,  in  spite 
of  statements  to  the  contrary,  and  a  heavy  scale  will  induce  the  burning 
out  of  parts  exposed  to  the  flames. 

Remedy. — A  small  amount  of  salt  water  is  bound  to  get  into  the 
boilers,  even  under  favorable  conditions,  through  priming  in  the  evaporator 
and  sHght  leakage  from  the  condenser,  and  it  is  an  excellent  plan  to  con- 
stantly use  a  small  quantity  of  milk  of  lime  to  neutralize  it.     One  or  two 


pounds  per  looo  indicated  horse-power  fed  per  day,  in  the  manner  below 
mentioned,  may  suffice.  The  Hme  used  is  the  ordinary  unslaked  lime  of 
commerce,  and  it  should  be  finely  powdered  and  kept  in  a  dry  place;  for 
instance,  on  the  up-take  gratings. 

Milk  of  lime  is  a  mixture  of  about  one  pound  of  lime  to  a  gallon  of 
water  and  should  be  added  at  times  to  the  water  in  the  filter  box. 

The  Use  of  Lime. — When  starting  with  new  boilers  on  a  voyage 
for  the  first  time,  ten  pounds  of  lime  should  be  put  into  the  boilers  for  every 
1000  horse-power  (dissolve  in  water  and  put  in  through  man  hole);  and 
four  to  six  pounds  of  lime  per  day  for  every  lOOO  horse-power  should 
be  passed  through  the  hot  well  (as  milk  of  lime)  for  about  six  days.  At  the 
end  of  the  voyage  the  boilers  should  be  examined  to  see  if  they  have  a  thin 
coating  of  lime  scale  on  their  interior  surface.  If  this  is  not  the  case  and 
the  water  shows  an  improper  color,  the  use  of  the  lime  should  be  continued. 

The  rationale  of  the  use  of  lime  is  the  conversion  of  magnesium 
chloride,  which  is  corrosive  in  effect  on  iron  and  steel,  into  magnesia  and 
chloride  of  calcium  neither  of  which  is  corrosive;  and  the  light  scale  on  the 
surface  also  prevents  the  corrosive  elements  from  coming  into  contact  with 
the  iron. 

Further  precautionary  methods  must  be  employed  by  the  marine 
engineer  in  order  to  conquer  corrosion.  The  boiler  water  should  be  tested 
daily,  and  if  found  to  be  acid  or  to  contain  a  larger  amount  than  50  grains 
of  chlorine  per  gallon,  a  remedy  must  be  applied. 

ACIDITY 

This  cause  of  corrosion  may  arise  from  salt  feed,  or  from  the  introduc- 
tion of  animal  or  vegetable  oil  with  the  feed  water  by  reason  of  using  such 
oils  in  the  steam  cylinders,  the  exhaust  steam  entraining  much  of  it  to  the 
condensers.  This  oil,  containing  fatty  acids,  will  decompose  and  cause 
pitting  wherever  the  sludgy  deposit  can  find  a  resting  place  in  the  boilers. 

Preventive. — Next  in  importance  to  the  total  exclusion  of  sea 
water,  is  the  necessity  of  keeping  oil  out  of  the  boiler.  Only  the  highest 
grade  of  hydrocarbon  oil  should  ever  be  used  in  the  steam  cylinders,  and  of 
this  the  least  possible  amount.  Also,  in  lubricating  piston  rods  and  valve 
stems,  this  same  precaution  should  be  observed.  For,  apart  from  the  evil 
effects  of  acidity,  the  hydrocarbon  deposited  upon  the  heating  surfaces  is 
most  harmful,  as  a  thin  film  of  this  deposit  forms  a  complete  non-conductor, 
thereby  preventing  the  heat  from  passing  through  into  the  water,  and 
causing  the  surfaces  to  burn,  blister  and  crack. 

Where  surface  condensers  are  used,  the  feed  water  should  be  purified 
on  its  way  to  the  boiler  by  passing  it  through  a   cartridge  filter,  which 

121 


must  be  kept  clean.  A  large  amount  of  impurities  is  thereby  caught,  and 
the  condition  of  the  feed  water  materially  improved. 

Remedy. — If  the  boiler  water  is  strongly  acid,  a  solution  of  carbon- 
ate of  soda  should  be  added  to  the  feed  at  the  rate  of  a  bucket  of  soda 
solution  per  hour  until  the  water  just  turns  red  litmus  paper  blue,  after 
which  daily  additions  of  soda  will  suffice  to  keep  the  water  in  a  safe  or 
alkaline  state.  Carbonate  of  soda  has  also  been  found  effective  in  cases 
where  scale  of  sulphate  of  lime  is  formed,  as  it  possesses  the  property  of 
changing  the  sulphate  of  lime  to  sulphate  of  soda,  which  is  soluble,  and 
therefore,  harmless.  Carbonate  of  lime,  which  is  also  formed,  may  be  easily 
blown  or  washed  out. 

To  sum  up,  oil  and  salt  water  should  never  be  allowed  to  enter  any 
kind  of  a  steam  generator,  and,  where  surface  condensers  are  used,  the 
feed  water  should  be  purified  as  much  as  possible  before  entering  the  boiler. 

Graphite  can  be  used  in  place  of  oil  as  a  cylinder  lubricant  wath 
equally  satisfactory  results.  In  fact,  graphite  is  superior  to  oil  when  the 
steam  pressure  carried  is  from  200  to  275  pounds,  corresponding  to  a 
temperature  in  the  neighborhood  of  400°  F. 

Oils  containing  animal  fats  produce  rapid  corrosion  and  should  never 
be  used  in  the  cylinder  of  a  steam  engine. 

Many  steam  vessels  are  running  without  a  particle  of  oil  ever  being  in- 
jected into  either  their  main  or  auxiliary  cylinders,  the  slushing  of  the  piston 
rods  being  found  ample  for  piston  lubrication. 

ADMIXTURE  OF  AIR  WITH  FEED  WATER 

Air  has  been  a  well-recognized  cause  of  corrosion  for  many  years, 
and  instances  of  rapid  corrosion  have  been  proved  to  have  been  caused 
by  the  feed  pumps  sucking  air  from  the  hot  well,  and  the  feed  being 
delivered  at  a  level  considerably  below  the  water  line.  The  boilers  that 
have  been  most  free  from  this  kind  of  corrosion  are  those  in  which  the  best 
means  have  been  adopted  to  keep  out  air. 

Small  bubbles  of  air  expelled  from  the  water  on  boiling,  attach  themselves 
tenaciously  to  the  heating  surfaces.  The  oxygen  in  this  air  at  once  begins  war 
on  the  iron  or  steel  and  forms  iron  rust ;  making  a  thin  crust  or  excrescence 
which,  when  washed  away  by  the  circulation  or  dislodged  by  expansion  and 
contraction  leaves  beneath  a  small  hole  or  pit.  Pitting,  once  started,  pro- 
gresses rapidly,  as  the  indentations  form  ideal  resting  places  for  the  bubbles 
of  air,  and  at  the  same  time  present  increased  surfaces  to  be  attacked. 

"^Thorpe  states  that  "nearly  all  natural  waters  contain  oxygen  in 
solution,  and  can  only  be  freed  therefrom  by  prolonged  boiling  in  vacuo. " 

*Spenmath  states  that  water  absorbs  oxygen  as  follows : 

*  "  Corrosion  of  Boiler  Tubes  in  U.  S.  Navy,  "  Lt.  Com.  Walter  F.  Worthington,  U.  S.  N., 
Journal  of  the  American  Society  of  Naval  Engineers,  Vol.  XII. 

123 


At  32"  Fahrenheit  it  will  absorb  4.9  per  cent,  of  its  own  bulk 
At  50°  Fahrenheit  it  will  absorb  3.8  per  cent,  of  its  own  bulk 
At  68°  Fahrenheit  it  will  absorb  3.1  per  cent,  of  its  own  bulk 

*Stromeyer  states  that  under  150  pounds  pressure,  cold  feed  water 
absorbs  3.2  pounds  of  oxygen  per  ton. 

With  independent  feed  pumps  there  is  less  opportunity  for  air  to  get  into 
the  boilers  than  when  the  pumps  are  worked  off  the  engines.  Air  or  oxygen 
is  most  corrosive  in  its  action,  and  this  is  the  reason  for  the  boiler  feed 
delivery  pipes  being  fixed  either  in  the  steam  space  or  near  the  water  line. 

Preventive. — Where  possible,  the  hot  well  water  should  be  pumped 
to  a  filter  tank  situated  eight  to  ten  feet  above  the  feed  pump  suction 
valves.  By  so  doing  a  large  amount  of  air  rises  and  is  liberated  from  the 
surface  of  the  water,  and  a  head  of  water  at  the  suction  valves  of  the  pump  is 
assured. 

Remedy. — Salt  w^ater  absorbs  more  air  than  fresh  water.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  keep  the  pump  glands  tight,  and  to  efficiently  entrap  free  air  in 
the  air  vessels. 

GALVAXIC  ACTION 

Formerly,  nearly  all  corrosion  in  boilers  was  attributed  to  this  cause,  and 
zinc  slabs  were  suspended  everywhere  possible  within  the  water  space.  The 
position  of  zinc  relative  to  that  of  iron  in  the  scale  of  electro-positive 
metals,  causes  it  to  be  attacked  instead  of  the  metal  of  the  boiler  when 
galvanic  action  takes  place. 

Preventive, — To  afford  protection  by  the  use  of  zinc,  however,  there 
must  be  positive  metallic  contact  between  the  zinc  and  iron.  Practically,  it 
is  impossible  to  maintain  this  contact  with  the  usual  methods  of  installation, 
and  it  has  been  shown  that  no  galvanic  current  exists  after  a  few  hours  of 
steaming,  in  the  arrangements  ordinarily  emi)loyed. 

Remedy. — The  use  of  zinc,  however,  should  not  be  abandoned  on  this 
account,  as  it  appears  still  a  very  important  element  of  protection  against 
corrosion  due  to  air  in  feed  water.  Its  suspension  in  drums,  and  points  within 
the  boiler  near  the  entrance  of  the  feed,  is  recommended  as  of  positive 
benefit,  and,  indeed,  as  long  as  zinc  slabs  continue  to  disintegrate  and  oxidize 
in  a  boiler,  they  deflect  to  themselves  from  the  iron  just  that  amount  of 
harmful  action. 

METHOD  OF  TESTING  WATER  FOR  CORROSIVENESS 

The  first  thing  in  testing,  as  is  well  known,  is  to  see  that  the  color  of  the 
water,  as  shown  in  the  gauge  glass,  is  neither  black  nor  red.     The  only  color 

*  "Corrosion  of  Boiler  Tubes  in  U.  S.  Navy,"  Lt.  Com.  Walter  F.  Worthington,  U.  S.  N., 
Journal  oj the  American  Society  oj  Naval  Engineers,  Vol.  XII. 

124 


admissible  is  slightly  dirty  gray  or  straw  color,  unless  the  water  is  transparent. 
So  long  as  the  water  is  red  or  black,  corrosion  is  going  on,  and  it  must  immedi- 
ately be  neutralized  by  freely  using  lime  or  soda,  and  frequently  scumming 
and  blowing  off,  the  make-up  being  provided  by  the  evaporator. 

The  salinometer  is  not  a  very  accurate  instrument  for  determining  the 
quantity  of  sea  water  in  boiler  water,  but  the  apparatus  here  described  gives 


STEAM  WHALER  "SHELIKOF" 
Owners:  Pacific  Whaling  Co.    Babcock  &  Wilcox  Boilers,  450  Indicated  Horse-power 

a  convenient  and  accurate  method  of  ascertaining  the  exact  number  of 
grains  of  chlorine  per  gallon  in  the  water  tested.  It  is  based  on  the  scheme 
for  the  volumetric  determination  of  chlorine  devised  by  Fr.  Mohr,  an  emi- 
nent chemist,  and  requires  one  graduated  bottle,  one  bottle  of  silver  solution 
containing  4.738  grams  of  silver  nitrate  to  1000  grams  of  distilled  water,  and 
one  bottle  of  chromate  indicator,  which  is  a  10  per  cent,  solution  of  pure 
neutral  potassium  chromate. 

To  Make  Test. — Fill  the  graduated  bottle  to  the  zero  mark  with  the 
water  to  be  tested ;  add  one  drop  of  the  chromate  indicator ;  then  slowly  add 
the  silver  solution;  keep  shaking  the  bottle.  On  nearing  the  full  amount  of 
silver  solution  required,  the  water  will  turn  red  for  a  moment,  and  then 
back  to  yellow  again  when  shaken.  The  moment  it  turns  red  and  remains 
red,  stop  adding  the  silver.     The  reading  on  the  graduated  bottle  at  the 


125 


Ejsawj  Jj^.:_ I.  l"J  lit,  ^inli»iiiii»t 

126 


level  of  the  liquid  will  then  show  the  amount  of  chlorine  in  grains  per  gallon. 
For  example,  if  a  permanent  red  color  is  shown  when  the  level  is  midway 
between  150  and  200,  there  are  175  grains  of  chlorine  per  gallon. 

The  principle  of  the  process  depends  upon  the  fact  that  if  some  of  this 
silver  solution  be  dropped  into  water  containing  a  chloride,  a  curdy  white 
precipitate  of  chloride  of  silver  will  be  formed. 
If  there  is  also  present  in  the  water  enough 
potassium  chromate  to  give  a  yellow  color, 
the  white  precipitate  will  continue  to  form  as 
before,  owing  to  the  silver  having  a  greater 
affinity  for  chlorine  than  for  the  chromic  acid 
in  the  chromate.  But,  at  the  moment  when 
all  the  chlorine  in  the  sample  has  been  con- 
verted, the  silver  will  attack  the  yellow  potas- 
sium chromate,  and  chromate  of  silver  will  be 
formed,  which  is  red  in  color.  The  amount 
of  chlorine  present  is,  therefore,  shown  by  the 
amount  of  silver  solution  required  to  convert 
it  all  to  silver  chloride,  and  the  determination 
of  the  exact  point  at  w^hich  the  chloride  precipi- 
tate ceases  to  form  is  greatly  facilitated  by  ob- 
serving when  the  chromate  indicator  turns  from 
yellow  to  red. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  add  the  silver  solu- 
tion until  the  color  becomes  very  red,  as  the 
delicacy  of  the  reaction  would  be  destroyed,  but 
the  change  from  yellow  to  yellowish  red  must 
be  distinct  and  must  not  change  on  shaking. 
The  sample  of  water  to  be  tested  should  be 
neutral,  as  free  acids  dissolve  the  silver  chro- 
mate. If  it  should  be  acid,  neutralize  by  adding  sodium  carbonate.  Slight 
alkalinity  does  not  interfere  with  the  reaction,  but  should  the  sample  be 
very  alkaline,  it  may  be  neutralized  with  nitric  acid. 

Should  it  happen  that  the  color  does  not  change  within  the  limits  of 
the  graduations,  the  sample  may  be  tested  by  diluting  with  distilled  water. 
For  example,  add  three  parts  of  distilled  water  to  one  part  of  the  sample. 
If  then,  on  testing  the  mixture,  the  color  changes  at  200,  the  number  of  grains 
per  gallon  in  the  original  sample  will  be  four  times  this  reading,  or  800  grains. 

The  chlorine  should  be  kept  down  to  the  least  possible  amount — say  below 
50  grains  per  gallon- — as  the  nearer  the  boiler  water  is  to  fresh  water  the  safer 
the  boilers  are  against  corrosion. 

If  the  water  is  so  corrosive  as  to  be  acid,  blue  litmus  paper,  which  has 
not  been  allowed  to  become  deteriorated  through  exposure  to  the  atmos- 


Hssbs^ 


CiRADUATKD   BoTTLE 


127 


128 


phere  (keep  in  a  bottle  with  a  glass  stopper),  will  turn  slightly  red.  If  a 
change  in  color  is  not  apparent  at  once,  it  should  be  allowed  to  remain  in 
the  solution  a  few  minutes  and  then  carefully  dried  and  compared  with  an 
unused  sample. 

Another  method  is  to  put  into  it  a  few  drops  of  a  chemical  called 
methyl-orange.  This  methyl-orange  gives  a  yellow  color  so  long  as  the 
water  is  alkaline,  but  if  turned  pink,  it  shows  that  the  water  is  acid,  and 
therefore  highly  corrosive.  This  latter  test  is  more  sensitive  than  the 
litmus  paper  test,  and  should  be  used  in  preference. 

A  testing  kit  containing  the  graduated  bottle  and  the  solutions  referred 
to,  also  strips  of  blue  and  red  litmus  paper,  neatly  packed  in  a  padded  box,  is 
supplied  by  The  Babcock  &  Wilcox  Company  with  all  boiler  installations 
intended  for  salt  water  service. 


Steam  and  Water  Drum.     Babcock  &  Wilcox  Boiler,  Details  of  Construction 


129 


CARE  OF   BABCOCK  &  WILCOX   MARINE   BOILERS 

FIRING. — The  correct  manner  of  firing  boilers  depends  largely  upon 
the  class  and  quality  of  the  fuel.  Coal  can  be  divided  roughly 
into  three  classes — anthracite,  or  hard  coal;  semi-bituminous;  and 
bituminous,  or  soft  coal.  When  anthracite  coal  is  burned  it  should 
be  spread  evenly  over  the  grate  and  a  fire  of  uniform  thickness  maintained, 
which  may  be  from  3  to  8  inches,  depending  on  the  intensity  of  the  draft 
and  size  of  the  fuel.  When  stoking,  half  the  grate  should  be  covered  at  a 
time.  In  this  way,  complete  combustion  is  promoted  by  the  fire  on  the 
bright  half  of  the  grate. 

Semi-bituminous  coal,  that  is  high  in  fixed  carbon  and  low  in  volatile 
matter,  can  be  fired  evenly  on  the  grate  or  coked  just  inside  the  fire  door 
under  the  reverberatory  roof,  and  then  spread  back  over  the  incandescent 
fuel  beyond.  The  coking  of  the  coal  at  the  front  of  the  furnace  distills  off 
the  volatile  gases  which  burn  under  the  furnace  roof  before  passing  among 
the  tubes  forming  the  heating  surface. 

Bituminous  coal,  which  contains  a  large  percentage  of  volatile  matter 
and  a  relatively  small  amount  of  fixed  carbon,  is  best  burned  by  stoking  light 
and  often  and  covering  about  one-quarter  of  the  grate  at  a  time.  The  fire 
should  be  from  four  to  seven  inches  thick  to  obtain  the  best  results. 

Cleaning. — The  efficiency  of  boilers  must  be  preserved  by  keeping 
the  heating  surfaces  clean,  both  externally  and  internally.  By  means  of 
a  steam  lance  and  a  flexible  hose,  provided  with  the  boilers,  the  soot  may 
be  almost  entirely  removed  from  the  tubes,  the  lance  being  inserted  through 
the  dusting  doors  in  the  side  casing.  In  this  way  the  boilers  may  be  cleaned 
without  interfering  with  the  stoking.  On  arriving  in  port,  the  boilers  should 
be  swept  out,  and  all  deposits  of  soot  removed. 

When  time  in  port  will  permit,  the  hand  hole  plates  opposite  the  tubes 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  furnaces  should  be  removed,  and  the  interior  surfaces 
examined  and  washed  out;  and,  if  any  undue  accumulation  of  scale  has 
taken  place,  it  should  be  removed  by  the  spoon  scrapers  or  wire  brush. 

Tubes  have  been  known  to  blister  and  crack,  and  upon  removal  found  to 
contain  only  an  eggshell  of  scale  thinly  deposited  over  their  entire  inner 
surface.  Had  these  tubes  been  closely  examined,  before  removal,  by  means 
of  an  electric  lamp  or  torch,  a  small  laminated  hummock  of  scale  would  have 
been  discovered  directly  over  the  blister  or  crack.  These  small  bunches  are 
composed  of  flakes  of  scale  that  have  become  loosened  from  other  parts  of 
the  boiler  and  carried  with  the  circulation  until  dammed  in  some  portion  of 
the  tube.  As  these  bunches  are  loose,  they  may  be  easily  dislodged  by 
washing  out  with  a  hose.  Scale  burns  are  most  likely  to  occur  when  the 
feed  water  contains  sulphate  of  lime  or  when  salt  water  is  used  for  make-up 
feed. 

130 


If  the  water  has  a  tendency  to  form  a  hard  scale,  such  a  scale  should  be 
removed  with  the  tube  scrapers  provided.  One  thirty-second  of  an  inch 
of  scale  is  the  maximum  thickness  that  should  be  allowed  upon  the  heating 
surface. 


iiii>.'JiiilliBitfi>Mir>- 


STEAM  TUG  "EDNA  G" 
Owners:  Duluth  &  Iron  Range  Railroad.     Babcock  &  Wilcox  Boilers,  550  Indicated    Horse-power. 

Breaking  Ice  in  Duluth  Harbor 

Blowing  Off. — Boilers  should  be  blown  through  the  bottom  blow 
valves,  at  least  twice  a  day,  and  through  the  surface  blow  valve,  or  scummer, 
once  a  watch.  Opening  these  valves  wide  and  immediately  closing  them  is 
usually  sufficient. 

Bottom  blows  should  be  used  freely  after  the  boilers  have  been  standing 
with  banked  fires  or  quietly  steaming.  At  such  times  blowing  should  be 
more  frequently  attended  to,  as  the  circulation  is  less  active  and  there  is  more 
opportunity  for  scale-producing  deposits  to  settle  on  the  heating  surface. 

Repairs. — In  order  to  remove  a  tube,  select  a 
narrow  ripping  chisel  from  the  tool  box  furnished  with 
all  installations,  and  slit  both  ends  of  the  tube  length- 
wise to  a  depth  a  short  distance  beyond  the  tube  seat; 
close  the  expanded  portions  in,  and,  after  loosening,  the 
tube  can  be  driven  out.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to 
mar  the  seat  in  the  wrought-steel  header  into  which  the 
tube  is  expanded.     The  process  of  removing  and  renewing  tubes  is  the  same 


PLUG  EXTRACTOR 


131 


as  that  employed  in  Scotch  boilers,  but  avoids  the  necessity  of  beading  over 
as  the  ends  are  not  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  flames,  nor  the  tubes  used 
as  stays.  To  save  time  in  cases  of  emergency,  tubes  may  be  stopped  with  a 
conical  cast-iron  plug  supplied  for  the  purpose.  As  the  plug  fits  the  tube, 
only  a  few  raps  with  the  hammer  are  necessary  to  make  it  tight.  The 
large  end  of  the  plug  is  drilled  and  tapped,  and  may  be  easily  withdrawn  by 
the  extractor,  consisting  of  wrought-steel  bridge,  bolt  and  nut,  furnished 
with  the  boiler.  When  tubes  become  defective,  they  are  generally  renewed 
as  the  time  required  is  but  a  trifle  longer  than  that  of 
plugging. 

The  expanding  of  the  tubes  is  performed  in  the 
usual  manner  with  expanders  and  mandrils  provided. 
In  replacing  any  of  the  short  tubes,  or  nipples, 
between  the  headers  and  mud  drum,  or  headers  and 
steam  and  water  drum,  care  should  be  taken  that  the 
projecting  ends  are  swelled  with  the  expander.  All  tubes  and  nipples 
should  extend  beyond  their  expanded  seats  one-half  an  inch. 


^^J^ 


EXPANDER  IX  POSITION 


STEAM   PACKET  "CHARLES  NELSOX" 
Owner:  Chas.  Nelson,  San  Francisco,  Cal.     Babcock  &  Wilcox  Boilers,  850  Indratkd  Horse-power 


132 


TESTS  OF  BABCOCK  &  WILCOX  MARINE  BOILERS 

THE  object  of  testing  a  steam  boiler  is  to  determine  the  quantity 
and  quality  of  steam  it  will  supjjly  continuously  and  regularly, 
under  specified  conditions ;  the  amount  of  fuel  required  to  jjroduce 
that  amount  of  steam,  and  sometimes  sundry  other  facts  and 
values.  In  order  to  ascertain  these  things  by  observation,  it  is  necessary 
to  exercise  great  care  and  skill,  and  employ  the  most  perfect  apparatus, 
or  errors  will  creep  in  sufficient  to  vitiate  the  test  and  render  it  of  no  value, 
if  not  actually  misleading. 

The  principal  points  to  be  noted  in  a  boiler  test  are: 

1st.  The  type  and  dimensions  of  the  boiler,  including  the  area  of  heat- 
ing surface,  steam  and  water  space,  and  draft  area  through  or  between  tubes. 

2d.  The  style  of  grate,  its  area,  with  proportion  of  air  space  therein; 
height  and  size  of  funnel ;  area  of  up-take,  etc. 

3d.  Kind  and  quality  of  fuel ;  if  coal,  from  what  mine,  etc. ;  percentage 
of  refuse  and  percentage  of  moisture  in  fuel.  The  latter  is  a  more  important 
item  than  is  generally  understood,  as  in  adding  directly  to  the  weight,  it 
introduces  an  error  in  the  final  results  directly  proportioned  to  the  per  cent, 
of  the  fuel. 

4th.  Temperature  of  feed  water  entering  boiler,  and  temperature  of 
escaping  gases.  The  temperatures  of  fire  room  and  of  external  air  may  be 
noted,  but  are  usually  of  slight  importance. 

5th.  Pressure  of  steam  in  boiler,  draft  pressure  in  furnace,  at  boiler 
side  of  damper,  in  up-take  connection  with  funnel,  and  the  pressure  of  the 
blast,  if  any,  in  the  ash-pit  or  stoke  hold. 

6th.  Weights  of  feed  water,  of  fuel  and  of  ashes.  Water  meters  are 
not  reliable  as  an  accurate  measure  of  feed  water. 

yth.  Time  of  starting  and  of  stopping  test,  taking  care  that  the 
conditions  are  the  same  at  each,  as  far  as  possible. 

8th.     The  quality  of  the  steam,  whether  "wet, "  "dry"  or  superheated. 

From  these  data  all  the  results  can  be  figured,  giving  the  economy  and 
capacity  of  the  boiler,  and  the  sufficiency  or  insufficiency  of  the  conditions, 
for  obtaining  the  best  results. 

For  purposes  of  comparison  with  other  tests,  the  water  actually  evapo- 
rated under  the  observed  conditions  per  pound  of  coal  and  combustible 
and  per  square  foot  of  heating  surface  per  hour  are  reduced  to  "equivalent 
evaporation"  from  and  at  212  degrees.     (See  page  86.) 

The  standard  boiler  horse-power  is  equal  to  34>^  pounds  of  water  evapo- 
rated per  hour  from  and  at  212  degrees.  The  modern  marine  engine, 
however,  uses  only  about  half  a  boiler  horse-power  for  each  indicated  horse- 
power, and  any  calculation  of  the  former  quantity  is  of  little  use  for  marine 
purposes. 

133 


aCRTN  DECK 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  BOILERS  OF  U.  S.  S.  "ALERT" 


TESTS  OF  EXPERIMENTAL  MARINE  BOILER 

BUILT  BY  THE  BABCOCK  &  WILCOX  COMPANY  AND  INSTALLED  FOR 
EXPERI]\IENTAL  PURPOSES  AT  THEIR  WORKS 

THE  FOLLOWING  TESTS  WERE  MADE  ON  THIS  BOILER  UNDER  THE  CONDITIONS  NOTED: 

By  the  late  Chas.  E.  Emery,  Ph.D.,  October  29TH,  1897:  Anthracite  egg  coal;  closed 
stoke-hold  blast. 

By  Jay  M.  Whitham,  Mem.  Am.  Soc.  M.  E.,  May  7th,  1895:  Pocahontas  coal;  closed 

ASH-PIT  blast. 

By  Ernest  H.  Peabody,  Mem.  Am.  Soc.  M.  E.,  March  25TH,  1899:  Keystone  coal  with 
mechanical  stoker;  natural  draft. 


Engineer  conducting  test 
Date  of  test 


Duration  of  test,  hours     .... 
Heating  surface: 

1337  in  boiler 

215    in  heater,  sq.  ft. 
Grate  surface,  sq.  ft.  .... 

Ratio  of  heating  surface  to  grate  surface 

Kind  of  fuel 


Steam  pressure  by  gauge,  average,  lbs. 

Force  of  draft  in  inches  of  water,  closed  stoke 

hold      . 

Force  of  draft  in  inches  of  water,  closed  ash-pit 
Force  of  draft  in  inches  of  water  at  base  of 

funnel,  average 

Force  of  draft  in  inches  of  water  in  furnace, 

average        

Temperature  of  feed  water,  average  deg.  Fahr. 
Temperattire  of  water  from  heater,  average  deg. 

Fahr.  

Temperature  in  upper  part  of  closed  fire  room, 

average  deg.  Fahr 


C.  E.  Emery 
Oct.  29th,   1897 


■i 


Temperature  of  flue  gases 

Per  cent,  of  refuse  in  coal 

Quality  of  steam  (by  Barrus  calorimeter  with 

calibration) 

Average  water  per  hour  evaporated  into  dry 

steam  under  actual  conditions,  lbs. 
Water  evaporated  per  pound  of  coal,  from  and 

at  212°,  lbs 

Water  evaporated  per  pound  of  combustible, 

from  and  at  212°,  lbs 

Coal  per  sq.  ft.  of  grate  per  hour,  lbs.   . 
Water  evaporated  per  sq.  ft.  of  heating  surface 

per  hour,  under  actual  conditions,  lbs.  . 
Water  evaporated  per  sq.  ft.  of  heating  surface 

per  hour,  from  and  at  212°,  lbs. 
Water  evaporated  per  sq.  ft.  of  grate  per  hour, 

from  and  at  212°,  lbs 


7-33 

1552 
33-25 
46.67 
Lackawanna  egg. 
Woodward  Mine 
200 

+0.99 

-0.49 

+0.14 
108.8 

230.8 

95-2 

Antimony  did 
not  melt* 
7.98 

Dry 

9619 

8.36 

9.08 
40.29 

6.20 

7.21 

336.72 


J.  M.  Whitham 
May  7th,  1895 


E.  H.  Peabody 
Mar.  25th,  1899 


24 


1552 
38.5 
40.03 

Pocahontas 

run  of  mine 

154 


+0.98 

-0-54 

—0.04 
66.0 

147.9 


By  Pvrometer 
607°  F. 

5-38 

Dry 

12,493 
8.29 

8.76 
46.9 

8.05 

9.67 

389.7 


6.0 


1552 
45-7 
33-96 
Keystone 
run  of  mine 
113 

Natural 
draft 

-0.35 

-0.15 
61.3 

151.0 


Bismuth  melted" 
Lead  did  not 
12.6 

Dry 

5270 

10. II 

11.65 
13-7 

3-39 

4.07 

138.2 


Antimony  melts  at  840°  P.;   lead  at  625°  P.,  and  bismuth  at  510°  P. 


135 


TESTS  OF  A  BABCOCK  &  WILCOX  BOILER  BUILT  FOR 
THE  U.  S.  S.  "ALERT"* 

TESTS    CONDUCTED    BY    A    BOARD    OF    NAVAL    ENGINEER    OFFICERS    CONSISTING   OF 
LT.-COM.    GEO.   W.    McELROY,    LT.    \Y.    ^V.    \VHITE    AND   LT.    EMIL   THEISS. 

The  "Alert"  will  have  two  boilers  placed  side  by  side  in  the  ship,  with  a 
passageway  between  them,  facing  an  athwartship  fireroom. 

The  dimensions,  over  all,  of  the  boilers  are:  Length  at  bottom  of  ash-pit,  ii 
feet  I  inch;  distance  from  boiler  front  to  perpendicular  from  center  of  drum,  19^^ 
inches ;  length  at  top  from  back  end  to  center  of  drum,  10  feet  s-yi  inches ;  width  of 
boiler,  8  feet  9  inches;  height  from  bottom  of  ash-pit  to  center  of  drum,  10  feet 
8)'2  inches. 

Heating  surface,  outside  of  tubes,  square  feet        ....  2012 

Heating  surface  in  boxes,  square  feet 93 

Heating  surface  in  drum,  square  feet       .  ....  20 

Total  heating  surface 2125 

Grate  surface  (length  of  grate,  6  feet  4  inches)  square  feet .        .  48 

Ratio  heating  surface  to  grate  surface 44  :  i 

Air  heater: 

Number  of  tubes  (each  3  inches  diameter  and  6  feet  long)           .  102 

Heating  surface  in  tubes,  square  feet 481 

Area  through  tubes,  square  feet        ...          ....  4.3 

Least  area  l)et\vcen  tubes  for  up-take  gases,  square  feet      .        .  7.25 

Smoke  pipe: 

Diameter,  feet  and  inches 3-6 

Height,  feet 48 

Boiler: 
Weight  of  boiler,  dry-weighed  on  car,  complete,  pounds      .        .        46488 
Total  weight  of  boiler  and  water,  pounds 54638 

The  weight  of  water  necessary  to  fill  this  boiler  to  5  inches  in  gauge  glass 
(which  is  at  the  middle  of  the  driun),  is  8833  pounds,  or  8150  pounds  for  same 
level  at  temperature  due  to  boiling  water  under  225  pounds  pressure. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  TESTS 

Four  separate  tests  were  made,  on  April  11,  12,  13  and  14,  1899. 

The  first  was  with  cold  air,  closed  ash-pit  draft,  and  a  steam  jet  in  the  smoke 
pipe.  This  test  was  intended  to  demonstrate  the  performance,  under  the  con- 
ditions stated,  of  the  boiler  with  the  maximum  consumption  of  coal  that  it  is 
expected  to  reach  in  naval  practice. 

The  second  test  was  with  open  ash-pit,  a  steam  jet  being  used  in  the  chimney 
to  produce  a  partial  vacuum  about  equivalent  to  that  due  to  the  height  of  smoke 
pipe  as  on  the  ship,  viz.,  about  0.45  inch  of  water. 

The  third  was  with  heated  air,  closed  ash-pit  draft,  and  a  steam  jet  in  the 

*  Extracts  from  the  annual  report  for  1899  of  Admiral  Geo.  W.  Melville,  then  Engineer-in- 
chicf  of  the  United  vStatcs  Navy. 

136 


chimney.  The  blower  drew  the  air  through  the  heater  tubes  and  discharged  it 
into  the  back  of  the  ash-pit.  The  conditions  as  to  draft,  method  of  firing,  and 
temperature  of  feed  were  as  nearly  as  possible  the  same  as  in  test  No.  i ,  the  object 
being  to  establish  the  effect  due  to  the  heating  of  the  air. 

In  all  the  three  preceding  tests  Cumberland  coal  was  used.  During  the  first 
and  the  greater  part  of  the  second  test  it  was  George's  Creek  coal.  During  the 
latter  part  of  the  second  test,  and  throughout  the  third  test,  another  shipment  of 
coal,  also  Cumberland,  was  used.  This  last  coal  contained  less  slack  and  less 
surface  moisture  than  the  first,  but  all  was  of  excellent  and  presumably  of  very 
similar  quality. 

The  fourth  test  was  with  cold  air,  closed  ash-pit  draft,  and  a  steam  jet  in  the 
chimney,  and  was  undertaken  to  show  the  efficiency  of  the  boiler  using  hard  coal 
under  moderately  strong  forced  draft. 

Attention  is  especially  directed  to  the  comparative  results  of  tests  made 
April  13  in  presence  of  the  Board,  and  on  April  19  by  the  firm.  These  two  tests 
were  made  under  nearly  identical  conditions  as  to  draft,  temperature  of  feed,  and 
method  of  firing,  except  that  during  the  test  of  April  13  the  air  heater  was  in  use, 
while  on  April  19  it  was  not,  and  would  seem  to  show  that  with  the  ratio  of  grate 
to  heating  surface,  and  the  circulation  of  gases  secured  in  the  boiler  under  test, 
the  up-take  gases  escape  at  so  moderate  a  temperature  that  the  air  heater  is  of 
little  value.  The  data  of  the  tests,  bearing  on  this  point,  are  given  in  the  table 
on  the  following  page. 

The  results  of  the  parallel  tests,  with  and  without  air  heaters  in  use,  made  by 
the  Board  on  April  1 1  and  on  April  13,  are  somewhat  vitiated  by  the  fact  that  the 
coal  used  was  not  from  the  same  shipment  in  the  two  cases;  and,  while  from  the 
same  coal  region,  and  presumably  of  very  similar  heating  value,  the  first  lot 
contained  about  4.09  per  cent,  of  surface  moisture,  and  was  composed  of  nearly 
75  per  cent,  slack,  while  the  second  lot  contained  2.77  per  cent,  of  surface  moisture, 
and  contained  much  less  slack — about  50  per  cent. 

The  following  experiment,  made  April  22,  in  the  presence  of  Lieut,  (then 
Chief  Engineer)  G.  W.  McElroy,  United  Spates  Navy,  gives  the  time  required  for 
raising  steam  under  the  conditions  stated. 

Fires  were  started  with  wood  and  oily  waste  in  front.  About  one-half  shovel- 
ful of  kerosene  was  thrown  on  just  after  lighting  the  fires.  Soft  coal  was  used 
toward  the  end.  The  boiler  was  at  atmospheric  temperature  when  fires  were 
lighted,  the  water  at  the  temperature  of  54°  F.  Its  height  in  the  gauge  glass  on 
starting  fires  was  1^4  inches.  Almost  immediately  after  the  fires  were  started  the 
circulation  of  the  water  began,  as  evidenced  by  the  temperature  of  the  different 
parts  of  the  boiler. 

RECORD  OF  RAISING  STEAM 

Lighted  fire.  1J4  inches  water  in  boiler  gauge  glass.  Natural  draft 
Began  to  make  steam.  No  pressure  on  steam  gauge 
5  pounds  pressure  on  steam  gauge 
10  pounds  pressure  on  steam  gauge 
20  pounds  pressure  on  steam  gauge 
25  pounds  pressure  on  steam  gauge 
40  pounds  pressure  on  steam  gauge 

137 


II.3I 

11.42 

1 144' 2 

1 1 45 

ii.463i 

11.47 

11.48^ 

ARRANGEMENT  OF  BABCOCK  &  WILCOX  BOILERS  IN  LARGE  LAKE  CARGO  STEAMERS 


138 


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139 


5iH 

52% 

53 

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55H 


RECORD  OF  RAISING  STEAM— Continued 

49 /i     50  pounds  pressure  on  steam  gauge 

51         65  pounds  pressure  on  steam  gauge.    4J  2  inches  water  in  boiler  gauge  glass- 
Put  on  blower 
75  pounds  pressure  on  steam  gauge 
100  pounds  pressure  on  steam  gauge 
105  pounds  pressure  on  steam  gauge 
125  pounds  pressure  on  steam  gauge 
150  pounds  pressure  on  steam  gauge 
175  pounds  pressure  on  steam  gauge 
56^4  200  pounds  pressure  on  steam  gauge 

57/4  225  pounds  pressure  on  steam  gauge,     s^^incnes  water  in  boilergauge  glass. 

Safety  valve  blowing.     Stopped 
blower 

The  table  contains  the  calculated  results  and  final  averages.  The  evapora- 
tion has  been  figured  out  on  the  basis  of  dry  coal  and  combustible  consumed, 
and  water  evaporated  into  steam  of  the  calculated  quality. 

On  the  completion  of  the  tests  the  boiler  was  thoroughly  examined  inside  and 
outside. 

The  grate  bars  and  bearers  had  not  suffered  the  least  injury,  nor  did  the  fire- 
brick back,  or  the  fire-brick  baffles  supported  upon  the  row  of  4-inch  tubes  over 
the  furnace,  show  signs  of  distress. 

The  entire  outer  casing  plates  opposite  the  tubes  were  removed  on  one  side 
and  the  magnesia  and  fire-brick  lining  taken  down,  exposing  the  tubes  and  making 
possible  an  examination  of  the  sectional  vertical  baffles.  These,  as  well  as  the 
inclined  deflector  in  the  space  above  the  tubes,  were  found  in  perfect  condition. 
The  edges  were  sharp  and  no  warping  was  noticeable.  The  4-inch  tubes  imme- 
diately above  the  furnace  were  perfectly  straight. 

Generally  speaking,  the  tests  conducted  must  be  regarded  as  most  satis- 
factory. The  boiler  did  its  work  under  natural  and  under  forced  draft  with  good 
economy  and  without  distress.  The  comparatively  low  temperature  of  the  up- 
take gases  during  all  the  tests  both  with  and  without  the  air  heater  in  use  seems  to 
indicate  that  the  air  heater  is  not  a  necessity  in  combination  with  a  boiler  of  the 
design  in  question,  and  cannot  be  considered  a  desirable  adjunct  except  possibly 
when  working  at  very  high  rates  of  combustion. 


Ore  Docks  at  Two  Harbors,   Mi.\.n. 


140 


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142 


TESTS  OF  MACHINERY  OF  S.  S.  "PENNSYLVANIA" 

At  the  request  of  Capt.  A.  B.  Wolvin,  of  Duluth,  the  Babcock  &  Wilcox 
Company  installed  its  testing  apparatus  on  board  the  Minnesota  Steamship 
Company's  new  steamer  "Pennsylvania "*  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  series 
of  tests  of  that  steamer's  machinery. 

Advantage  was  also  taken  of  this  opportunity  by  the  Navy  Department 
to  secure  exact  data  regarding  the  economy  of  the  boilers,  the  steam  con- 
sumption of  the  main  engine  and  auxiliary  machinery,  and  the  working  of 
the  mechanical  stoker  with  which  the  ship  was  fitted.  Accordingly, 
Lieutenants  B.  C.  Bryan  and  W.  W.  White  were  detailed  by  the  Bureau  of 
Steam  Engineering  to  make  a  trip  with  the  ship  and  conduct  the  trials. 

The  results  obtained  were  published  in  vol.  xi.  (1899),  part  3,  of  the 
Jour7ial  of  the  American  Society  of  Naval  Engineers,  from  which  we 
quote  the  following : 

"The  main  propelling  engine  is  of  the  vertical,  direct-acting,  inverted,  jet- 
condensing  quadruple-expansion  type,  designed  for  a  maximum  horse-power  of 
about  2000. 

Number  of  cylinders,  unjacketed 4 

C  High-pressure 15M 

Diameter  of  cylinders,  j    First  intermediate-pressure         .        .  23^ 

in  inches                         j    Second  intermediate-pressure     .        .  36  J^ 

y  Low-pressure 56 

Stroke,  inches       40 

Diarheter  of  piston  rods,  inches 4% 

"Steam  is  supplied  by  two  boilers  of  the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  water-tube 
marine  type,  built  for  a  pressure  of  250  pounds.  Each  boiler  is  9  feet  3  inches 
long,  12  feet  6  inches  wide,  and  16  feet  8  inches  high,  containing  3000  square  feet 
of  heating  surface  and  suitable  for  65  square  feet  of  grate  surface. 

Weight  of  boilers,  dry,  pounds 145,860 

Weight  of  water  contained,  pounds 33.492 

Total  weight  of  boilers  and  water,  pounds       ....        179,352 

"All  steam-generating  tubes  are  2  inches  in  diameter,  No.  10  B.  W.  G.  in 
thickness  and  7  feet  3  inches  long,  the  connecting  tubes  being  4  inches  in  diameter 
and  No.  6  B.  W.  G.  in  thickness.  The  sides  of  the  boilers  are  formed  by  2-inch 
tubes  inclined  the  same  as  the  generating  tubes,  but  placed  one  above  the  other 
and  expanded  into  straight  manifolds  or  corner  boxes. 

"Three  mechanical  underfed  stokers  are  fitted  to  each  boiler.  These  were 
installed  by  the  American  Stoker  Company. 

"The  particular  coal  handled  on  these  trials  was  from  the  Essen  mine,  in 
western  Pennsylvania.     It  contained  a  large  percentage  of  refuse,  and  therefore 

*  The  name  of  this  vessel  has  since  been  changed  to  "  Mataafa.  " 

143 


afforded  an  excellent  opportunity  of  illustrating  any  superiority  in  stoking  which  a 
mechanical  device  would  give  over  hand  firing.  A  test  of  a  sample  of  the  coal 
used  gave,  by  a  Mahler  bomb  calorimeter,  1 1 ,790  B.  T.  U.  per  pound  of  dry  coal. 

"In  all,  eight  tests  of  the  main  engine  were  made.  No.  i,  No.  2,  and  No.  5 
are  similar,  and  representative  of  the  usual  power  developed  under  ordinary 
steaming  conditions  of  the  vessel.  Test  No.  3  was  made  with  almost  maximtim 
high-pressure  cut-off;  test  No.  4,  cutting  off  very  nearly  as  short  as  the  high- 
pressure  valve  gear  would  permit. 

"Tests  No.  6  (a,  b,  c)  were  undertaken  with  the  sole  aim  of  ascertaining  the 
economy  of  the  main  engine  when  working  tmder  reduced  boiler  pressures,  no 
account  of  the  coal  used  being  recorded. 

"The  results  of  these  tests  are  not  strictly  comparable,  on  account  of  the 
irregular  operation  of  the  air  pump,  causing,  as  will  be  seen  from  an  inspection  of 
the  tables,  considerable  variation  in  the  vacuum  obtained  on  the  different  tests. 
A  more  satisfactory  comparison  would  have  been  possible  had  the  vacuum  carried 
been  about  the  same  at  all  times. 

"Previous  to  beginning  the  above  tests  the  dead  plates  of  the  furnace  were 
thoroughly  cleaned  of  clinker.  The  same  operation  was  repeated  about  an  hour 
before  each,  test  ended,  particular  attention  being  given  to  have  the  fires,  as  nearly 
as  could  be  judged  by  the  eye,  in  the  same  condition  at  both  the  beginning  and  the 
end.  Each  tost  was  begun  and  finished  with  the  stoker  hoppers  entirely  filled; 
coal  fired  during  the  interval  covered  by  the  test  was  accurately  weighed  on  a 
platform  scale. 

"  During  the  tests  all  water  fed  to  the  boilers  was  delivered  by  the  air  pump 
through  a  4-inch  pipe  connection  from  the  overboard  discharge  of  the  (jet) 
condenser,  into  the  upper  of  two  tanks  in  the  engine  room,  which  latter  were 
specially  installed  for  the  tests.  The  upper  tank  was  mounted  upon  platform 
scales,  and  water  flowing  into  it  could  be  regulated  or  shut  off,  as  desired,  by 
means  of  a  valve.  Each  tank  of  water,  after  weighing,  was  dropped  In'  gravity  to 
the  lower  tank,  from  which  a  suction  i)ipc  of  about  8  feet  in  length  led  to  the  feed 
pump. 

"All  tests  began  with  the  lower  or  feeding  tank  full,  and  ended  in  the  same 
way. 

"A  Barrus  throttling  calorimeter  attached  to  the  main  steam  pipe  near  the 
high-pressure  cylinder  was  used  to  determine  the  quality  of  steam  supplied  by  the 
boilers,  and  readings  of  the  upper  and  lower  thermometers  were  recorded. 

"The  moisture  in  the  steam,  as  figured,  after  making  due  allowance  for  con- 
densation in  the  instrument,  is  so  infinitesimal  as  to  be  entirely  negligible  in  the 
final  results.  The  assumption  has  been  made,  therefore,  that  dry  steam  was 
furnished  during  all  the  tests. 

"The  method  adopted  to  determine  the  amount  of  steam  used  by  the 
auxiliary  machinery  was  to  condense  the  exhaust  steam  therefrom  and  weigh  the 
resultant  water.  This  condensation  was  accomplished  by  means  of  a  cylindrical 
exhaust  feed-water  heater,  of  the  surface  condenser  type,  containing  thirty-eight 
2-inch  tubes  9  feet  long.  The  feed  water  on  its  path  to  the  boilers  passed  through 
these  tubes  and  condensed  the  exhaust  steam  from  the  auxiliaries,  which  was 
directed  into  the  shell,  and  at  the  same  time  elevated  its  own  temperature  pro- 

144 


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145 


portionately.  In  order  to  reduce  the  temperature  of  the  drain  from  the  feed 
heater,  it  was  led  to  a  coil  contained  within  a  barrel.  A  stream  of  cooling  water 
ran  into  the  barrel  and  overflowed  into  the  bilge.  Mounted  upon  platform  scales 
was  another  barrel  which  received,  by  gravity,  the  condensed  exhaust  steam  from 
the  auxiliaries.  As  soon  as  the  weighing  barrel  was  filled  the  inflow  was  momen- 
tarily stopped,  the  weight  taken,  and  then  the  condensed  water  rapidly  discharged 
into  the  bilge. 

"On  May  28th,  three  special  tests  were  run,  with  the  view  of  fixing  the  steam 
consumption  of  the  fire-room  blower  and  air  pump,  and  incidentally  the  total 
steam  necessary  to  operate  the  several  auxiliary  pumps  and  the  steering  engine, 
which  were  in  use  during  all  the  tests.  The  power  developed  by  the  main  engine, 
and  the  average  weight  of  coal  burned  were  about  as  shown  in  test  No.  i . 

STEAM  CONSUMPTION  OF  AUXILIARY  MACHINERY 


Auxiliary 

Sleam  Consumed  per  Hour  (Pounds) 

Air  pump 

721 

715 

828 

613 

Feed  pump    . 

487 

468 

595 

350 

Bilge  pump 

275 

275 

320 

240 

Water-service  pump 

146 

154 

156 

150 

Auxiliary  pump    . 

330 

Starboard  dynamo 

480 

480 

Port  dynamo 

671 

Steering  engine     . 

125 

125 

125 

125 

Fire-room  blower 

622 

692 
2909 

725 

550 

Total      . 

3377 

3229 

2028 

"To  determine  the  amount  of  steam  used  in  operating  the  stokers,  the 
exhaust  from  one  was  led  into  a  barrel  containing  a  previously  weighed  quantity 
of  water,  and  there  condensed.  Two  tests,  similarly  made,  gave  22.5  and  i-x^."] 
pounds,  respectively,  or  an  average  of  23.1  pounds,  as  the  hourly  consumption. 
For  all  stokers  the  steam  used  per  hour  would,  therefore,  amount  to  138.6  pounds. 

"  The  cost  of  operating  all  stokers  and  the  blower  is  found  to  be  4.29  jjcr  cent, 
of  the  total  steam  generated.  By  reason  of  the  blower  exhaust  passing  through 
the  feed  heater,  however,  the  actual  net  cost  of  the  stoker  installation  is  equiva- 
lent only  to  1.68  per  cent,  of  the  steam  made. " 

Attention  of  the  reader  is  particularly  called  to  the  high  evaporation 
obtained  from  and  at  212°  per  pound  of  coal,  the  average  result  of  five  tests 
being  8.86,  which  is  especially  g.ood  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  coal 
burned  contained  only  11,790  B.  T.  U.  per  pound.  The  average  efficiency 
of  the  boiler  is  therefore  72.6  per  cent.  Again,  the  coal  consumption  per 
indicated  horse-power  would  have  been  materially  reduced  had  it  been 
possible  to  maintain  a  better  vacuum,  the  highest  reading  recorded  being 
only  24.35  inches,  while  the  average  was  only  23.5  inches. 


146 


TESTS  OF  MACHINERY  OF  S.  S.  "ALEXANDER  McDOUGALL"* 

Under  direction  of  the  Bureau  and  by  the  courtesy  of  the  officials  of  the 
Minnesota  Steamship  Co.,  two  tests  were  made  by  Lieuts.  B.  C.  Bryan  and  W. 
W.  White,  U.  S.  N.,  of  this  Bureau,  of  the'  main  machinery  of  the  steamer 
"Alexander  McDougall,"  at  present  the  largest  whaleback  in  service  on  the 
Great  Lakes. 

The  main  engine  was  designed  for  a  maximum  horse-power  of  about  2500 
and  is  similar  in  arrangement  and  all  essential  features  to  the  engine  of  the 
"Pennsylvania." 

The  auxiliary  machinery,  however,  differs  from  that  of  the  "Pennsylvania," 
in  that  the  air,  water  service  (cooler),  and  bilge  pumps  are  attached  to  the  low- 
pressure  cross-head  of  the  main  engine;  the  feed  pump  (Deane),  is  independent, 
duplex,  of  the  horizontal  compound  tandem-plunger  type,  having  steam  cylinders 
of  8  and  12  inches,  respectively,  with  water  cylinders  of  5  inches,  and  a  common 
stroke  of  10  inches.  Much  of  the  other  auxiliary  machinery  is  practically  the 
same  on  both  ships. 


Data  of  Main  Engine 


Diameter  of  cylinders,  inches  (all  rods  53<4-inch  diameter) 

Stroke  inches 

Net  piston  areas,  square  inches 

Ratios  of  net  piston  areas 

Clearances,  per  cent. 


High- 
pressure 

First  Inter- 

Second In- 

mediate- 

termediate- 

pressure 

pressure 

19 

28K 

43 

40 

40 

40 

272.7 

627.12 

1441.38 

1:12.51 

1:5.42 

1:2.36 

15 

II 

10 

Low- 
pressure 


66 

40 

3410-38 

I 

9 


Steam  is  supplied  by  two  boilers  of  the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  marine  water- 
tubular  type,  built  for  a  pressure  of  250  pounds,  containing  7000  square  feet  of 
heating  and  128.8  square  feet  of  grate  surface.  Two  small  one-cylinder  (5  by  5) 
blowers,  one  for  each  boiler,  with  an  inlet  through  heaters  in  the  up-take  and 
delivering  at  the  back  of  the  ash-pits,  supply  the  necessary  air  under  forced  draft 
for  combustion  of  the  fuel,  which  latter  is  hand-fired. 

Two  tests  were  made  on  the  down  trip,  one  on  Lake  Superior  and  the  other  on 
Lake  Huron.  The  vessel  was  loaded  with  a  cargo  of  6407  tons  (2240  pounds 
each)  of  iron  ore,  and  had  in  tow  the  barge  "Constitution,  "  laden  with  5164  tons 
of  the  same  material. 

The  method  of  weighing  the  total  water  fed  to  the  boilers,  and  ascertaining 
the  steam  used  by  the  auxiliaries  was,  substantially,  the  same  as  in  the  tests  of 
the  machinery  of  the  "Pennsylvania."  A  summary  of  results  obtained  appears 
on  page  151. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  test  on  July  21,  the  following  auxiliary  machinery 
was  in  operation :  Feed  pump,  steam-steering  engine  and  both  fire-room  blowers. 
By  reason  of  the  feed-water  heater  being  entirely  too  small,  excessive  back  pressure 
resulted,  and  the  fire-room  blowers  were  stopped  (in  use  one  and  one-fifth  hours) 
after  it  became  evident  that  steam  could  be  readily  and  easily  maintained  at  the 

*  Extract  from  the  annual  report  for  1899  of  Admiral  Geo.  W.  Melville,  then  Engineer-in- 
chief,  U.  S.  N. 


147 


1 4^ 


SUMMARY  OF  TRIALS— S.  S.  "ALEX.  McDOUGALL' 


Date  of  trial,  1899 

Duration  of  trial,  hours      .... 
Speed  of  vessel,  miles  .... 

Draft  of  vessel  during  trial,  forward,  feet 
Draft  of  vessel  during  trial,  aft,  feet 
Revolutions  of  engines        .... 
Piston  speed,  feet  per  minute    . 

( Boiler     . 

I  At  engine 
Pressures  per  gauge     .      <^  First  receiver 

Second  receiver 

I  Third  receiver 
Vacuum  in  condenser,  inches  of  mercury 
Opening  of  throttle 


Steam  cut-off  in  fractions 
of  stroke    . 


i  High-pressure 
J  F"ir: 


Mean  pressure  in 
ders    . 


Indicated  horse-power 


irst  intermediate-pressure 
Second  intermediate-pressure 
Low-pressure 
Nominal  ratio  of  expansion 

[  High-pressure 

I  First  intermediate-pressure 
ylin-  ■{  Second  intermediate-pressure 

j  Low-pressure 

I  Equivalent  reduced  to  low-pressure 

f  High -pressure 

I  First  intermediate-pressure 


-l  Second  intermediate-pressure 


Per  cent,  of  total  indi- 
cated horse-power  de- 
veloped in  each  cylin- 
der     .... 


Low-pressure 

I  Total 

i  High -pressure 
)  First  intermediate-pressure 
j  Second  intermediate-pressure 
'  Low-pressure 
f  Injection       .... 
Temperature,  in  degrees  j  Hot- well        .... 
Fahrenheit         .        .       j  Feed  water  after  passing  heater 

L  Escaping  gases  at  base  of  smoke  pipe 
Double  strokes  of  feed  pump     . 
Revolutions  of  the  blow-  j  Port 
ers       .        .        .        .      ]  Starboard 


Air  pressure,  boiler  ash-pits,  inches  of  water 

Kind  of  coal 

Total  amount  of  coal  consumed,  pounds 

Moisture  in  coal,  per  cent. 

Dry  coal  consumed,  pounds 

Total  refuse  in  coal,  pounds 

Total  combustible  consumed,  pounds 

Quality  of  steam 

Weighed  water  pumped  to  boilers,  pounds 
Water  evaporated  per  pound  of  dry  coal,  boiler  conditions,  pounds 
Water  evaporated  per  pound  of  combustible,  boiler  conditions,  pound; 
Equivalent  evaporation,  per  pound  of  dry  coal  from  and  at  212° 
Equivalent  evaporation,  per  pound  of  combustible,  from  and  at  212 
Dry  coal  burned  per  hour  per  square  foot  of  grate  surface,  pounds 

Total  steam  used  by  main  engine,  pounds 

Total  steam  used  by  auxiliary  machinery,  as  weighed,  pounds  . 
Steam  used  by  main  engine  per  hour,  per  indicated  horse-power  de 

veloped,  pounds 

Total  steam  used  (all  machinery  in  use)  per  hour,  per  indicated  horse 

power  developed  by  main  engine 
Dry  coal  used  per  hour  per  indicated  horse-power  to  generate  steam 

necessary  to  run  main  engine  only,  pounds 
Dry  coal  used  per  hour  per  indicated  horse-power,  developed  by  main 

engine,  to  generate  steam  required  to  operate  all  machinery  in  use. 


July  21 
10 
8.83 

i7-«3 
18.00 

754 
502.7 

247.8 

245 
96.8 

33-1 

2.09 

22.35 

Wide 

•53 

•56 

•63 

.66 

20.04 

93-4 
36.1 

15-5 
6.85 

27-57 
388.15 
345-29 
342.85 
357-00 

1433-29 
27.08 
24.09 
23.92 
24.91 
46 
117 
170.6 
543-6 
26.1 


t 

t 

27200 

5 

25840 

2967 

22873 
Dry 
223996 

8.67 

9-79 

9-58 

10.82 

20.06 

207764 

16232 

14-50 

15-63 

1.67 

1.80 


July  23 
6 
9-75 

17-83 
18.00 
81.7 
544-7 
244 
240.7 
107.5 
35.2 
3-2 
22.4 
Wide 
.685 
.625 
.655 
-725 
16.39 
100.90 
44-56 
18.88 
8.31 
32.60 
456.94 
459-55 
452.52 
466.94 

1835.95 
24.89 

25-03 
24-65 
25-43 
64 

115 

157-8 

526 
29.7 

391 

31^*3 
-25 

X 
19500 

5 

18525 

1710 

16815 

Dry 

165980 

8.96 

9.87 

10.02 

11.03 

23-97 

157346 

8634 

14.28 

15-07 

1-59 

1.68 


*  Not  in  operation.      f  Natural  Draft,     t  Run  of  Mine,  Pittsburg  bituminous. 

149 


usual  pressure  without  their  aid.  The  average  hourly  weight  of  condensed  ex- 
haust steam  collected  during  five  hours  of  the  test,  with  the  feed  pump  and 
steering  engine  only  in  use,  amounted  to  1685.4  pounds.  For  the  purpose  of 
fixing  the  steam  economy  of  the  feed  pump  during  the  last  two  and  one-fourth 
hours  of  the  test,  the  steam-steering  engine  was  thrown  out  and  the  ship  steered 
by  hand.  Under  the  latter  conditions,  an  average  of  1 174.7  pounds  of  condensed 
exhaust  steam  per  hour  resulted. 

During  the  entire  test  on  July  23,  the  only  auxiliary  machinery  in  operation 
was  the  feed  pump  and  fire-room  blowers. 


U,  S.  BATTLESHIP  ■'  NEW  HAMPSHIRE  " 
Babcock  &  Wilcox  Boilers.     17,'200  Indicated  Horse-power 


150 


TESTS  OF  A  BABCOCK  &  WILCOX  BOILER  BUILT 
FOR  THE  U.  S.  S.   "CINCINNATI"* 

In  the  annual  report  of  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Steam  Engineering  for 
1900  there  is  published  a  report  of  tests  made  on  one  of  eight  new  boilers  built  by 
the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  Company  for  the  "Cincinnati, "  by  a  board  composed  of 
Lieutenant-Commander  A.  B.  Willits  and  Lieutenant  B.  C.  Bryan,  U.  S,  N. 
These  tests  were  made  June  15  to  22,  1900,  at  the  works  of  the  builders,  Elizabeth- 
port,  N.  J.,  and  the  following  synopsis  includes  all  but  the  detailed  tabulations 
from  which  the  important  results  given  were  deduced. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  BOILER  AND  APPURTENANCES 

The  boiler  is  of  the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  new  marine  type,  composed  entirely 
of  wrought  steel,  the  point  of  difference  between  it  and  the  older  type  of  this  make 
of  boiler  being  in  the  arrangement  of  baffle  plates  (as  shown  in  the  sectional  view 
on  the  following  page)  which  compel  the  products  of  combustion  to  pass  three 
times  across  the  tubes  before  entering  the  up-take.  The  small  tubes  are  2  inches 
outside  diameter,  while  the  bottom  tube  in  each  section  or  element,  is  4  inches 
outside  diameter.     The  total  heating  surface  is  2640  square  feet. 

The  grate  is  an  undivided  area  of  63.25  square  feet,  and  is  fired  through  four 
properly  spaced  doors. 

BOILER  DATA 

Kind  of  boiler,  Babcock  &  Wilcox— "  Alert "  type.  Diameter  of  top  drum, 
42  inches,  inside.  Length  of  top  drum,  12  feet.  Tubes:  total  number,  565; 
length,  8  feet  (525,  2  inches  outside  diameter,  and  40,  4  inches  outside  diameter). 
Grate  surface:  length,  6  feet  8)4  inches;  width,  9  feet  ^}4  inches;  area,  63.25. 
Grate  surface  reduced  in  tests  Nos.  5  and  6,  to  5  feet  6  inches ;  52  square  feet  area. 
Heating  surface:  area,  2640  square  feet;  ratio  to  grate,  41.74:1.  Per  cent,  water- 
heating  surface,  100.  Grate  bars:  kind,  fixed.  Smoke  pipe:  area,  7.876  feet; 
height,  48  feet  above  grate ;  ratio  to  grate,  i :  8.03.  Weight  of  boiler  and  all  fittings 
except  up-takes  and  smoke  pipe : 

Without  water,  pounds 53304 

Water,  5  inches  in  glass;  steam  at  215  pounds,  pounds    .        .        9498 


Total  with  water,  pounds 62802 

Total  weight  per  square  foot  of  grate  surface,  pounds      .        .  992.9 

Total  weight  per  square  foot  of  heating  surface,  pounds  .        .  23.79 

Blower:  kind,  60-inch  Sturtevant,  driven  by  belt  from  shop  engines.  Area 
of  blower  inlet,  9.62  square  feet;  outlet,  6.89  square  feet.  Feed  water:  kind,  feed 
water  heated  by  steam  jet.  Air  heater:  kind,  two-pass;  3-inch  tubes.  Area  of 
surface,  495  square  feet.  Feed  pumps:  kind,  Worthington  duplex;  diameters  of 
cylinders,  7^  and  4  inches ;  6-inch  stroke.     Other  boiler  appurtenances :  steam  jet. 

The  boiler  was  erected  in  a  wooden  structure  built  especially  for  the  test  and 
having  the  following  dimensions:  Length,  29  feet  2  inches;  width,  17  feet  2^ 

*  Extracts   from    the  Journal  of  the  American    Society    of   Naval    Engineers,    volume    xii. 
(1900). 

151 


I,'. 


O     M 


<     ? 


Q  o 


H    o 
<  pq 

^  'J 

o  d 

u  oa 

.   u 


I 


inches;  height,  21  feet.  This  was  made  as  nearly  air-tight  as  possible,  but 
contained  several  windows  that  could  be  opened  or  closed  to  regulate  the  amount 
of  draft  pressure.  The  blower  was  driven  by  belting  from  the  main  shop  engines 
and  ran  continually. 

An  air  heater  was  built  in  the  up-take  by  means  of  which  the  waste  gases 
imparted  heat  to  the  air  on  its  passage  to  the  ash-pit.  This  heater  could  be 
placed  in  and  out  of  service  at  will  by  the  use  of  a  by-pass  flue. 


'CIXCIXXATI'S' 


BOILER— B.  &  W.  "ALERT"  DESIGN. 
PATH  OF  GASES 


SECTION  SHOWING 


DESCRIPTION  AND  OBJECT  OF  TESTS 

Seven  tests  were  made  in  all.  Six  of  these  consisted  of  three  pairs,  in  which 
the  tests  of  each  pair  were  made  under  similar  conditions  in  every  way  except 
that  of  using  the  air  heater,  one  being  with  and  the  other  being  without  this 
heater,  in  order  to  define  the  econom}-  due  to  its  use.  The  last  or  seventh  test 
was  for  inaximum  capacity,  and  was  made  without  the  air  heater  and  with  the 
full  grate.  Two  pairs  of  tests,  one  at  a  consumption  of  about  20  pounds  of  coal 
and  the  other  at  about  35  pounds  of  coal  per  square  foot  of  grate  per  hour,  were 
made  with  the  full  grate  surface  in  use.  These  tests  will  be  found  in  tables  of 
results  numbered  i,  2-H,  3-H,  4,  the  letter  H  signifying  that  the  air  heater  was  in 
use  during  the  tests.     The  grate  surface  was  then  reduced  to  52  square  feet,  by  a 


153 


June  19,  1900, — Without  air  heater,  full  grate. 
Coal  per  square  foot  of  grate  per  hour,  35.08  pounds. 
Water  per  square  foot  of   heating  surface,  from 

and  at  212°,  8.75  POUNDS. 


June  20,  igco. — Without  air  heater,  reduced  grate. 
Co.\L  per  square  foot  of  grate  per  HOUR,  50.38  pounds. 
Water   per  squarb  foot  of  heating  surface,  from 

and  at  212°,  10.07  POUNDS. 


Al. — Aluminum  melts  at 
Sb. — Antimony  melts  at 
Zn. — Zinc  melts  at 
Pb. — Lead  melts  at 


1160'  F. 
840°  F. 
7So^  F. 
02S"  F. 


June  22,    1900. — Without  air   heater,   full  grate. 
Coal  per  square  foot  of  grate  per  hour,  59.2  pounds. 
Water  per  square   foot  of  heating  surface,  from 
and  at  212°,  13.67  pounds. 


June  25,    uyoo. — Without  air   heater,   full  grate. 
Coal  per  square  foot  of  grate  per  hour,  20. 18  pounds. 
Water  per  square  foot  of   heating  surface,  from 
and  at  212"^,  5.42  pounds. 


TEMPERATURE  OF  GASES  PASSIXG  THROUGH  BOILER  AS  SHOWN  BY  MELTIXG  POINT  OF 
METALS— TESTS  OF  ■•CINCINNATI"  BOILER 


154 


course  and  a  half  of  bricks,  seven  courses  in  height,  at  the  back  of  the  furnace,  and 
tests  Nos.  5  and  6-H  were  made,  burning  about  50  pounds  of  coal  per  square  foot 
of  grate  per  hour.  The  bricks  were  then  removed  from  the  furnace  and  test  No. 
7  was  made,  burning  nearly  60  pounds  of  coal  per  square  foot  of  grate  per  hour. 
The  data  and  results  of  these  tests  will  be  found  in  the  table  on  pages  158  and  159. 

COAL  AND  FIRING 

The  fuel  used  was  Pocahontas,  Flat  Top,  coal.  It  contained  considerable 
slate  and  clinkered  badly.  On  tests  Nos.  i  and  2-H  run-of-mine  coal  was  used; 
on  tests  Nos.  3-H,  4,  5,  and  6-H  the  coal  was  screened,  using  a  screen  with  a  i-inch 
mesh.  On  test  No.  7  the  screenings  from  the  former  tests  were  run  over  a  f-inch 
mesh  screen,  and  the  coal  thus  screened  was  mixed  with  the  screened  coal  used 
in  other  tests.  The  firing  was  good  and  very  regular.  Two  alternate  doors 
were  fired  in  rapid  succession.  The  other  two  sections  of  fires,  in  wake  of  the 
other  two  doors,  were  sliced  through  the  slicing  door,  and  then  leveled  with  a  hoe, 
and  then  coaled,  the  average  time  between  coalings  of  the  same  two  furnaces 
being  from  eight  to  ten  minutes.  The  furnace  doors  were  open  about  twenty-five 
seconds  when  coaling  and  about  ten  seconds  in  leveling.  The  coal  made  com- 
paratively little  smoke  except  when  firing  or  working  fires.  The  data  in  regard 
to  smoke  was  taken  by  using  Ringelmann  charts. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  APPARATUS 

The  water  was  weighed  in  two  tanks,  each  supported  on  a  platform  scale  and 
run  into  a  third  tank  below,  from  which  the  feed  pumps  drew  water.  All  pipes 
were  above  ground  and  in  plain  sight,  and  wherever  connected  to  other  piping  or 
boilers,  plugs  were  left  out  of  T  connections  to  show  that  there  was  no  leakage. 
The  gross  and  tare  weights  of  each  tank  were  taken,  and  the  temperature  was 
taken  at  the  lower  tank  just  as  each  upper  tank  drained  into  it.  The  feed  water 
was  heated  by  steam  injection  before  entering  the  weighing  tanks. 

The  coal  was  weighed  in  barrows  on  platform  scales  in  the  fire  room  and 
dumped  on  the  floor.     The  time  was  taken  when  each  lot  of  barrows  was  fired. 

A  sample  shovelful  of  coal  was  taken  from  each  lot  of  barrows  and  thrown 
into  a  barrel,  and  from  this,  mixed  and  quartered,  the  final  samples  for  analyses, 
calorimeter  and  moisture  determinations  were  taken.  The  gases  for  analyses 
were  drawn  from  near  the  center  of  the  base  of  smoke  pipe  by  means  of  a  pipe 
inserted  therein  connected  with  an  inspirator  and  a  small  Orsat  instrument. 

All  draft  pressures  were  taken  outside  the  building,  pipes  being  led  there  from 
the  different  places  where  pressure  determinations  were  required. 

Temperatures  were  taken  at  the  back  and  front  of  the  up-take  just  above  the 
heater;  in  front  by  a  mercurial  pyrometer,  and  at  the  back  by  a  metallic  pyro- 
meter. When  the  air  heater  was  used  the  temperature  was  taken  in  addition 
just  below  the  heater  by  means  of  a  mercurial  pyrometer. 

The  moisture  in  the  steam  was  determined  by  a  Barrus  universal  calorimeter. 
The  steam  was  found  practically  dry  in  all  cases.  The  steam  was  partly  used  in 
the  shop  and  partly  blown  off  into  the  atmosphere,  the  pressure  being  controlled 
by  regulating  a  small  stop  valve  by  hand. 

Experiments  to  show  the  heat  of  the  gases  at  various  points  were  made  by 

155 


156 


noting  the  points  at  which  different  metals  melted.  A  small  piece  of  metal  was 
wired  to  a  j^iccc  of  >^-inch  pipe,  and  pushed  in  carefully  through  the  dust  doors 
at  the  side  of  casing  to  about  the  middle  of  the  boiler;  by  noting  where  such  metal 
would  melt,  and  again  introducing  a  piece  of  the  same  metal  at  another  hole 
farther  along  in  the  path  of  the  gases  until  a  position  was  reached  when  the  metal 
would  not  melt,  and  by  the  use  of  various  metals  with  known  melting  points,  the 
temperature  of  the  gases  was  determined  and  is  plotted  on  the  diagrams  on 
page  154. 

Before  making  test  No.  6-H,  on  June  21st,  all  water  was  drained  from  the 
boiler  and  the  contents  of  boiler  noted  for  each  i-inch  mark  of  the  water  gauge 
glass,  with  the  following  results : 

WEIGHT  OF  WATER  CONTAINED  IN  BOILER 
Temperature  of  Water,  72  Degrees  Fahrenheit 


Height  of  Wate.- 

in   Gauge 

Inches 

Total  Water 
Pounds 

Difference 

Height  of  Water 

in   Gauge 

Inches 

Total  Water 
Pounds 

Difference 

0 

I 
2 

3 

4 

9312 
9498 
9662 
9912 
IOI37 

186 

164 
250 
225 

5 
6 

7 
8 

10368 
10672 
10943 
III75 

231 

304 
271 
232 

Fires  were  started  in  the  boilers  with  light  wood,  and  blower  in  use,  at  9:40 
A.M.     Temperature  of  water  in  boiler,  "2  degrees;  height  in  gauge  glass,  i  inch. 

The  following  is  a  record  of  the  time  required  to  raise  steam,  to  215  pounds 
pressure  from  cold  water : 

RECORD  OF  RAISING  STEAM 


Time 

Time 

Steam  Pressure 
Pounds           : 

Steam  Pressure 
Pounds 

By  Watch 

Elapsed 

' 

By  Watch 

Elapsed 

9:40 

Fires  started 

1 1  mins.    0  sees. 

125 

9  ^^ 

Di 

9:45 

5  mms.    0  sees. 

vSteam  formed 

9 

51  :io 

11  mms.  10  sees. 

135 

9:46:30 

6  mins.  30  sec;;.. 

25 

9 

51:15 

II  mms.  15  sees. 

145 

9:47:30 

7  mms.  30  sees. 

35 

9 

51:30 

1 1  mms.  30  sees. 

155 

9:48 

8  mins.    0  sees. 

45 

9 

51:40 

1 1  mms.  40  sees. 

165 

9:48:30 

8  mins.  30  sees. 

55 

9 

51:55 

1 1  mms.  55  sees. 

175 

9:49 

9  mms.    0  sees. 

65 

9 

52:10 

12  mms.  I  osees. 

185 

9:49:30 

9  mms.  30  sees. 

75 

9 

52 :20 

12  mins.  20  sees. 

195 

9--50 

10  mms.    osees 

85 

9 

52 :30 

12  mins.  30  sees. 

205 

9:50:30 

10  mins.  30  sees 

95 

9 

52:40 

12  mms.  40  sees. 

215 

9:50:45 

10  mms.  45  sees 

115 

An  examination  of  the  boiler  after  this  test  showed  no  injury  or  change  in  its 
condition  in  any  respect. 

In  addition  to  the  tests  made  for  the  Navy  Department,  three  tests  were 
made  for  The  Babcock  &  Wilcox  Company  by  Air.  E.  H.  Peabody,  Mem.  Am. 
Soc.  AI.  E.  The  data  and  results  of  these  tests  are  included  with  the  others  in 
the  following  table : 


157 


< 

l-H 

o 
o 


\n      *' 

•n 

t 

00  r^  0 

4)  4)      «n              m 

00  00 

ui 

a 

;        t^  -f  r*5  0 

'■    '•           '? 

.y  c    T          -: 

m      -1  -^ 

6 

riGP^ 

• "  r  r  1' 

•     •  rO  r~  + t~    0 

M 

fe  5i  0    '  0  f-ro  d 
pi  j;  m      MO  -J- 
c^  0  "       "  -^o 

ti      d 

S 

•  0.  1  1  1 

•     •  t  ^  0  rO     Tt 

M  pj  M  PI    m 

-t 

CO 

^  <  p. 

w  m      m      T 

i-i 

< 

s 

?  is3  ^^ 

0000 

4)'S       m               0 

0 

. 

0  in  ►-  c  0 

;      ;  :  ■* 

-i  C       r-               p; 

m      tn  ^ 

o 

o 

4jo  t:  oi  o  -^M 

1  ^cp. 

:g  r  I'  ■  ■ 

■  -T    .     .  ri-t    0> 

•  a    •     •  0  Ov    0 

I-.           10 

j£  "  0       m  p)  rood 

t_    u    ~3        000 

t^  So      mi-00 

-T 

'-'   <     p. 

WCO           CO            .- 

4J 

„,        CO!        '^  '7 

OMO  0    0 

Is  0      ? 

0 

ffi 

.  0  CMo  q  o 

!       !    '  '^ 

in      in  5i 

CO 

1    Su-^-* 

•  d  "  f 

.  -r  .    •  d  t    " 

c.-  0  no  t^o  0. 

sd       t-- 

w 

•SI  ' 

•  "    •    •  0  -   0 
«  «   0 

3  E  0      00c 

rO 

->      <         0, 

^.         0        OC 

PI 

N        o!   l-i        '^i  T 

N         00    -t  CvoO 

—t' 

- 

-3      00                m 

Ol 
PO  - 

0  00   -t  lOO   1^ 

T^    . . T     ^fe    - 

fi  5     00             tt 
■r  S  0  d  am  rtod 

ri  -1- 

f4ll-^ 

6  d  «  4I  -'  - 
'^«  1       ++ 

0  t-    .     .  Of,^„ 

t^     d " 

nil  fs5 

-r      m 

PO 

:2i 

CO 

'-'  <    " 

J  "^ 

"'"  "  " 

4> 

Ov        t-  IT)  ir,  00 

4)    0  HiO  CM~-  Ol 

-  -r 

ti 

n       ri  t.       o  w 

0  M   r^O   -t  0 

Tf  «  in  0  m 

in      00  Ol 

K 

4)   ^  t    4)   O   PI    O 

d  d.  f  4.  "  "i 

ro  0    1     '^.j Y 

m  ino'  d.  pi  dv    t 

t^ 

0'        ri 

c 

^6 

C  ^S—  -tu^io 

00  •-"  0  m  0  m    i^ 

n 

«      t        -t  .-f  0\ 

00        •* 

rt 

3        "UvO 

w  «  P)   «  PI     0 

0 

ho      OiOiO 

-t 

>> 

^      <        ^' 

CO     2        "^       °' 

M 

4J 

PI 

O         ■.- 

0        t  CMn  -1- 

c         "                "^ 
4)     0  «  0  t^~?  « 

00   0. 

m 

une  2 
4 

terna 

Clear 

640 
52.0 
50.8 

PI  0  n  c.  t-  00 
d  -0  fjl-  - 
'^m'^++ 

pj  .    .  pp  ";i    q 
c  d   •    •  "^  d.    d 

m  Ol 
0       d 

3 

00  0    ■    -co    -t 
«    •    •  «  «   0 

5>     0       00  i^  0  « 

ho      -t  •-  'o 

PI       m 

0 

-^    <      « 

CO  2    2"°" 

" 

CD 

4> 

_ 

0 

OV          -M                    IT)  -t 

01         ro  10  I-  -r 

00  t 

^ 

4)vO    t    4)   0   'O  " 

PI  -t  •-  Ov  -;  -t 
d  '--ll-il  -  - 
ro  0  '    ^+  + 

ce  »    -    .00  00   0 

lA,  -    ■    •  «  _;    0 

c          *?                 "? 

4>     r~  -.  -tooo  Ov 

coo 
0.       m 

^S 

C        4)p,  -t-O  -t 
3        -ijUo 

1-0     ■    •  0  0     r. 

"    -      -  0  -t 
{r    in      "5  PI  0 

-         PO 

CO 

^       <          " 

to    Z?      «  "  « 

" 

D 

00      ii          .o-r 

P»          0  "   PI  M 

"S 

-> 

s 

K 

M            0!     U            MI, 

C  oJ         .     . 

«o  n  41  0  fo -I 

HI  0  q  00  -T  I-;. 

d  d  -il  4. "  ^ 

P)  PI  M  0\       Oi    0 
d  00'  -T  in  ~>  in   00 

0 

go                m 
4>     m  i-«  00  00  0  00 

T       moo 

di      pi 

1 

C^  ajp  -TO  1- 

00  c^  O*  **>  c  'o    0 

0 

4)     PI       -  00  -n 

«       PI 

3       iiUo 

PI  ►-.  p)    0 

J;    o>      r^  0  0 

M 

.-,        ^           <N 

t«    ;;     !I  "  " 

" 

pi 
< 

^          4> 

t 

0          -.^                  1/5  -t 

00       0   Si  I-  fC 

>~          PI              0 

OOC 

E 

0 

K 

5;  CO    S    4)   0    fO  -! 

i-iO  PO  0  1-  PI 

^1 1'  1 ++ 

t~  m  t  PI  Pt  p« 

4  d  -^o  0  vd    m 

00 

0  4,     0             0 
C.S  0  p^  i-i  Ol  PI  00 

t-     d 

o 

c      5—  -to  •* 

00  Oi  Oi  0  0  0     <> 

m 

3  c  0        0  l>  PI 

^  C  0        PI  00  -O 

3        iiCJO 

PI  «   PI      TT 

T 

PI 

3 

^      -        r. 

4> 

0 

10      .i            in  -t 

0  0  in  10 

•«            0                   m 

4)00    S   S   0   f^" 

c      s—  -to  ■* 

.  m    .    .mm 

0  4)       q               q 

0       0  'T 

- 

■.§U^-i- 

•  -    ■    •  i^  -;   0 

•  0    •    •  0  0    0 

C.S  m'4mo  »  d 

3    r-    -t         PI    Ci  PI    "^ 

^    13   r<5         0>  Ov  Ol 
P5          0          Ol        00 

d      c>. 

t           HI 

3        SUo 

•  p< 

.  „    .    .  „  „     ,}• 

->  <    " 

.3  .a 

■"       .ti 

« 

4J          „- 
—          0 

'v 

.  "   .3 

...... 

.    .    .    .'5    .  'S 

J3 

J=        -c 

C 

ta    "t: 

? 

c        c 

<-.     3 

t,             4) 

0        u) 

4> 

"u          4) 

S    S 

4)          M 
-          « 

SO      ^ 

pounds    . 
pipe,  inches  of 

inches  of  watei 
inches  of  water 
re  room     . 

3 

4> 
0. 

E 

0 

riheit 
eit 

Fahrenheit  . 
Fahrenheit    . 
degrees  Fahr 
3  Fahrenheit 

degrees  Fahr 

er,  degrees  Fah 
Fuel 

ounds 

t.         .         .         . 
nied,  pounds     . 
,  pounds 
nsumed,  pound 
;nt.     . 

per  Hour 

our,  pounds 
ur  per  square  fo 

are  foot  heating 

41 
C 

Date  of  tests,  1900 

Duration  of  test,  hours 

Kind  of  start 

State  of  weather 

Heating  surface  . 

Grate  surface 

Ratio  of  heating  surface  to 

Average 

H 

"■^    S    M    !_■   "       1-" 

s 

y  gauge, 
base  of 
furnace, 
ash  pit, 
closed  fi 

0 

rt 

> 

< 

1  air,  degrees  Fah 
m,  degrees  Fahrei 
ring  heater,  degre 
ing  heater,  dcgret 
ter  entering  boile 
ring  ash  pit,  degr 

g  gases  from  boile 

41 

-C 

E 
0 

ocahontas  coal 

of  coal  as  fired,  p 
e  in  coal,  per  ceni 
of  dry  coal  consu 
of  ash  and  refuse, 
of  combustible  co 
n  dry  coal,  per  ce 

Fuel 

1  consumed  per  h 

i  consumed  per  ho 

;nds 

1  per  hour  per  squ; 

3 

■a 

o 
o 

4) 

:er,  inche 
ressure  b 
draft  at 
draft  in 
draft  in 
draft  in 

41 

Oj 

to 

4) 

c 
■& 

B 

W 

4> 

E 

3 

Baromel 
Steam  p 
Force  of 
Force  of 
Force  of 
Force  of 

Externa 
Fire  roo 
Air  ente 
Air  leav 
Feed  wa 
Air  ente 

Kscapim 

C 

'a 

ol 

0 

Kind,  P 

Weight 
Moistur 
Weight 
Weight 
Weight 
Refuse  i 

Dry  coa 

Dry  coa! 

pou 

Dry  coa! 

158 


. 

M 

00 

O 

O 

1-0 

M 

o 

'.  o 

o 

O  w 

r^ 

m  M  ro 

■O  lO 

0\ 

M 

f^ 

O  "0 

o 

^0 

-t 

o  >-<  o. 

M 

o 

o 

■rt- 

o 

in 

r< 

■* 

n 

n 

vO 

t^ 

•* 

O  -t 

o 

CN 

c* 

ri 

o 

O    M 

t^ 

lO  ro  l^ 

roo 

0^ 

t-t 

c» 

O  fO 

o> 

C-. 

t^ 

O     M     " 

W 

M 

O 

o- 

1~  O   N 

M 

•* 

Tt  0\  r^        ro 


»0  CO  CO 
I^  O  -^t 
OvO 
CO  ro 


'o  o 


^     -r!  , 


<u  a 


s-  -S? 


Ot3 

"  a 

o 


c  c  ft 


•SoS 


(U  oj  •" 
I.  M  a! 


C    ^    lU    OT 

a^i  &  Sr, 


bO  ■■ 


P        1)   1^  a!  M 


1  O  -*  ' 


ca 

■d 

3 

■d 

o 
o 

ft 

M 

V 

o 

tfl 

C 

•  o 

3 

*-^ 

V 

0) 

i 

D- 

rl 

3 

^ 

•  o 

o 

0) 

O 

ft 

+-» 

|a 

1,  ^  ^ 

C 

o 

o 

0 

a 

03 
> 

0 

0 

1) 
u 

n! 
3 

rr 

-  -M 

> 

OJ 

3 

CT 

0) 

ft 

M    > 

tfl 

> 

F 

3 

3 

3 

C 

u 

n 

[xl<W 

M 

(u  M.i  '^.r: 


k"        u-       u- 

^    w    w 


o      c      c^ 

^  m 

CO       dp 

O     M 

1  'e-SEo 

c 

■^^ 

■M       o  c  o  ft 

C3     •>«   g<-   oj' 

V. 

fti^ 

fe      C  ^dS 

W 

V    >. 

•o     .S-i-St;; 

fti 

3*5  2  8  2^ 

^  o  ft&S-o 

3r3 

i^a^-a^s 

^  o 

H-« 

o— ,  <"  o        o 

evap 

V  coa 

lent 

und 

lent 

und 

1-  o 

^  S 

u,   rt  o  d   o 

^^    >.    Q.>    ft 

M    d 


M 

X. 

j: 

o 

(/I 

"I- 

w 

Tl 

o 

bo 

C 

"o 

c 

•d 

o 
•3 

6 

it: 

c 

n! 

o 

'4. 

3 

j^ 

vO 

^ 

ft  & 


(U 


t!   6   i 

j=  ^   f^ 

§  £  - 
._  o 
bo  ^ 
C    d 


bo 


c   c   c 

--    rt    v^    */ 

•_s  -S  -g  S 

■d    ">  'J-  ^ 

d     g       .     m 

d   S   o   i; 

:  c  =^.  z  r. 

S-S   o   ^ 
ii   >   „  -- 

:  b^  ft  c 
i  ^  °-^^ 

;    <u  a!  .^  ^ 

i    C  0)  &  M- 

K  -^  -  • 

'  "d  §  "^  ° 

1    d  ,!^  Z  >" 

:    n>    °    o    ,. 


'     .5  4) 

•"    bo  O 

S  .s  -^ 

tl    3  5 

I    1  ft 

l!  3 
~°     3 

.  2.  bo 

ffi  j=  .S 

■     o  ^ 

"     a!  oi 


E  -• 


p^  .S-  c 


bo  M 
'   6  5. 
2;  j^ 


c  H  ic  . 


••  S  >   '^  ic 

60  .M     1-     t.    ^ 
C      O      01      OJ    •ii 


^^      OJ      OJ      <1> 


S     C    " 

P^  ft  CL,    j1     . 


-     (U     (U      1) 

•5   >   >   > 

w  <  <i  <: 


s  z 


159 


i6o 


ANALYSES  OF  WASTE  GASES  MADE  DURING  TESTS  OF  U.  S.  S.  "CINCINNATI 
BOILER,  ELIZABETHPORT,  N.  J.,  JUNE,   1900 


Date 


1900 
June  15  -: 


June  16 


June  18 


r 
I 

June  19  -^ 
I 
I 


June  20  -, 


June  21 


June  23  - 


June  23 


Time 


4-58 
5-15 
5-30 
5-55 
6.16 
6.27 
7-05 


11-45 
12.50 


11.25 
12.40 


12.58 
1.03 


10.10 

10.25 

10.28 

10.35 

11.00 

2.20 

2.40 


10.25 
11.00 

11.04 
II. 13 
12.25 
12.36 


11.00 

11.03 
II. 13 
11.50 
II. 55 
11-59 


ir.2i 

11.4s 

12.38 

2.26 

2.30 

2.43 


10.16 
10.21 
II. 10 
11.13 
11.47 


Condition  of  Fire  when  Sample  was  Taken 


Just  before  firing     . 

One  minute  after  firing 

Just  after  raking 

Two  minutes  after  firing 

Three  minutes  after  raking  and  just  before  firing 

Average 

Just  after  firing 

Just  after  slicing 

Just  after  slicing 

Average        ....... 


One-half  minute  after  firing 
While  slicing    .         .         .         . 
Just  after  slicing 
Just  before  slicing  . 
One  minute  after  firing  . 

Average 


While  slicing    . 

While   slicing    (all   samples   except    11   o'clock   collected 
through  Vfi-inch  iron  pipe)      ...... 

Just  after  raking 

One  minute  before  firing        ....... 

While  slicing  (sample  collected  through  glass  tube) 

Just  after  raking 

Just  after  firing        . 


Average 


While  slicing    . 

While  slicing    . 

Just  after  firing 

Two  minutes  before  rak 

Just  after  raking     . 

Just  after  raking     . 


Average 


Just  after  raking 

One  minute  before  raking 

Just  after  firing 

Just  after  raking 

One  minute  before  raking 

Just  before  raking 


Average 


Two  minutes  before  firing 

Two  minutes  before  firing     . 

Tust  before  leveling  and  firing 

Tust  after  firing 

fust  after  firing 

Two  minutes  before  firing     . 


Average 


Just  before  firing    . 
One  minute  before  firing 
Just  after  leveling 
Just  after  firing 
Just  after  firing 

Average 


CO2 


15-2 

14-3 
13.0 
12. 5 
14.3 
12.7 
16.0 


14.0 


12.0 
13-2 


12.5 
13-0 
13-5 


15-0 

13.8 
14.4 

13-2 

13-0 
10.2 


13-5 
II. 2 
10.4 
9.2 
12.1 
14.2 


15-7 
13.0 
15-4 
13.6 
13.0 
16.0 


14-5 


14.3 
II. o 

ii'.i 

13-3 
14.2 


15.3 
13.0 
13-7 
14.0 
g.o 

13.0 


3-3 
30 
6.5 
6.7 
3-7 
6.6 
2.0 


6.4 
5.0 
6.6 

4.8 


3-4 

4.0 
4-3 
4.0 
5-4 


5-2 
3-1 
5-6 
5.6 
8.3 
9.0 


5.7 
8.4 
8.1 
9.9 
5-4 
4.0 


6.9 


4.6 
6.0 
3.0 
5-6 
5.3 
4.2 


4.8 


4.1 
6.0 
6.6 
5-2 


CO 


i.o 
2.0 
0.0 
0.8 
1.0 


0.0 
1.0 


0.1 
1.2 
3-4 
0.2 


0.6 
0.9 
0.4 
0.6 
0.5 
0.3 


0.0 
0.3 
0.5 
0.0 


0.1 
0.0 
0.6 
0.1 
0.4 
0.0 


Pounds 
Dry  Gas 

per 
Pound 
Carbon 


1.0 
1.0 
0.3 
0.8 
0.3 


y  18.8 


>  20.1 


y  17.7 


y  18.6 


>-    18. 5 


161 


162 


TESTS  OF  A  BABCOCK  &  WILCOX  MARINE  BOILER,  BUILT  FOR  A  SEA-GOIXG 
DREDGE  FOR  THE  INDIAN  GOVERNMENT 

(The  tests  were  made  at  the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  Works,  Renfrew,  Scotland) 


Date,  1899 

Duration  of  test,  hours 

Heating  surface,  square  feet 

Grate  surface,  square  feet 

Kind  of  fuel  used 

Kind  of  draft 

Amount  of  draft  at  base  of  funnel,  inch 

Average  gauge  pressure,  pounds  per  square  inch . 

Average  temperature  of  feed  water,  degrees  Fahrenheit 

Mean  temperature  of  gases  in  funnel,  dgs.  Fahrenheit 

Total  coal  fired,  pounds 

Total  refuse,  pounds 

Percentage  of  refuse  

Coal  fired  per  hour,  pounds 

Refuse  per  hour  pounds, 

Combustible  per  hour,  pounds 

Coal  consumed  per  square  foot  grate  per  hour,  pounds 

Water  evaporated  per  hour  under  actual  observed  con-  ) 
dition,  feed  water  40  degrees  Fahrenheit,  pressure  [■ 
180  pounds,  pounds ) 

Equivalent  weight  of  water  evaporated  per  hour  with 
feed  at  no  degrees  Fahrenheit,  pounds 

Water  evaporated  per  pound  coal  per  hour,  actual  ob- 
served conditions,  feed  water  40  degrees  Fahrenheit, 
pressure  180  pounds,  pounds 

Water  evaporated  per  pound  coal  per  hour,  from  and  at 
212  degrees  Fahrenheit,  pounds 

Water  evaporated  per  pound  of  combustible  per  hour, 
actual  observed  conditions,  pounds     .... 

Water  evaporated  per  pound  of  combustible  per  hour,  ) 
actual  observed  conditions,  from  and  at  212  degrees  y 
Fahrenheit,  pounds ) 

Water  evaporated  per  square  foot  heating  surface,  as- 
suming feed  at  no  degrees  Fahrenheit,  pounds 

Water  evaporated  per  square  foot  of  grate  area,  assum- 
ing feed  at  no  degrees  Fahrenheit,  pounds 

Theoretical  total  heat  value  of  fuel  by  Thompson's 
calorimeter,  British  thermal  units       .... 

Efficiency  of  boiler,  per  cent 


December  28 

December  29 

December  30 

8 

8 

8 

2835 

2835 

2835 

77 

77    • 

77 

S.  Hetton 

Waynes 
Merthyr 
(Welsh) 

Black  Band 

(Newcastle) 

(Scotch) 

Natural 

Natural 

Natural 

•35 

■45 

-4 

180 

180 

180 

45 

40 

40 

635 

643 

620 

15600 

15600 

15600 

800 

1680 

2496 

51 

10.7 

16 

1950 

1950 

1950 

100 

210 

312 

1850 

1740 

1638 

25-32 

25-32 

25-32 

16112 

17700 

15625 

18013 

19877 

17546 

8.26 

9.08 

8.01 

10.11 

II. 15 

9-85 

8.7 

10.17 

9-54 

10.65 

12.5 

11-73 

6.3 

7- 

6.19 

234 

258 

227 

13460 

13660 

12870 

72.6 

78.9 

74 

Note. — The  evaporation  obtained  showed  the  boiler  to  be  of  a  capacity  suitable  for  a  1200  indicated  horse- 
power triple-expansion  engine  of  economical  construction,  using  14  to  15  pounds  of  steam  per  indicated  horse- 
power per  hour. 


163 


METHOD   UP   INSTALLING    BABCOCK   &    WILCOX    BOILERS   IN    THE    S.    S.    "KVICHAK" 
While  the  vessel  was  still  on  the  stocks,  an  opening  was  left  in  the  side  opposite  the  boiler  space.      The  boilers  were 
raised  on  crib  work,  and  slid  through  the  opening  on  to  their  foundations,  after  which  the  frames  were  erected  and 
the  plating  completed. 

164 


COAL  CONSUMPTION  TESTS  OF  S.  S.  "JOHN  W.  GATES"* 

Between  October  lo  and  15,  1900,  tests  were  made  on  the  lake  steamer  "John 
W.  Gates,"  owned  by  the  American  Steamship  Co.,  by  Lieutenant-Commander 
J.  H.  Perry  and  Lieutenant  B.  C.  Bryan,  U.  S.  N. 

Four  tests  in  all  were  made,  of  ten,  four,  eight  and  six  hours'  duration,  re- 
spectively. During  the  tests  indicator  cards  were  taken  from  the  main  engines, 
and  the  usual  observations  of  i3ressures  and  temperatures  recorded.  The  coal 
was  carefully  weighed  and  logged  on  each  test. 

Tests  Nos.  I  and  2  were  made  with  the  vessel  light,  on  the  up  trip,  in  Lakes 
Huron  and  Superior,  respectively.  Test  No.  i  was  made  under  the  usual  running 
speed  of  the  vessel  when  light,  and  amounted  to  merely  weighing  coal  and  taking 
observations  for  ten  hours  out  of  the  run.  Test  No.  2  was  made  using  a  steam 
jet  in  the  smoke  pipe  to  increase  the  draft. 

Tests  Nos.  3  and  4  were  made  on  the  down  trip,  after  having  loaded  at  Two 
Harbors,  Minn.,  with  about  7000  tons  of  ore,  the  vessel  drawing  about  17  feet  10 
inches  of  water.  Test  No.  3  was  made  at  the  usual  running  speed,  and  Test  No.  4 
with  draft  increased  by  steam  jet  in  smoke  pipe. 

The  machinery  of  this  ship  was  built  under  the  supervision  of  the  Chief 
Engineer  of  the  American  Steamship  Co.,  Mr,  Joseph  F.  Hayes,  and  the  great 
economy  obtained  is  largely  due  to  his  care  in  the  design  and  arrangement  of  the 
plant.  The  ratio  of  the  high  to  low-pressure  cylinder  area  is  1  to  13.22.  Joy 
valve  gear  is  used  on  the  high  and  intermediate-pressure  cylinders,  giving  in  the 
high-pressure  cylinder  an  admission  of  steam  almost  perfect,  as  is  shown  by  the 
indicator  cards  therefrom.  The  cylinder  ports  are  made  large,  while  the  clearance 
is  reduced  as  much  as  possible.  A  feed  heater  is  provided,  into  which  all  the 
auxiliaries  necessary  for  heating  the  feed  water  are  exhausted.  The  dynamo  when 
running  exhausts  into  the  third  receiver  of  the  main  engine,  and  all  precautions 
have  been  taken  to  make  these  engines  economical,  and  with  great  success,  as  is 
shown  by  the  results. 

The  type  of  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boiler  adopted,  known  as  the  "Alert"  type,  is 
one  that  the  recent  tests  made  by  Government  officials  show  to  be  exceedingly 
economical  under  various  conditions.  It  is  provided  with  baffle  plates  directing 
the  products  of  combustion  three  times  across  the  tubes  before  leaving  the  boiler. 
Each  of  the  two  boilers  installed  is  10  feet  long,  ii  feet  8  inches  wide,  and  13  feet 
10  inches  high,  containing  3000  square  feet  of  heating  surface  and  suitable  for  65 
to  70  square  feet  of  ordinary  grate  surface  for  hand  firing.  The  total  grate  sur- 
face of  all  stokers  is  108  square  feet. 

The  weight  of  the  two  boilers  dry  is  109,  260  pounds,  and  with  water,  132,590 
pounds. 

The  bottom  and  top  rows  of  tubes  are  4  inches  in  diameter  and  all  others  are 
2  inches  in  diameter.  All  tubes  are  of  seamless  cold-drawn  steel,  the  4-inch  tubes 
being  No.  6  B.  W.  G.,  and  the  2-inch  tubes  No.  10  B.  W.  G.  in  thickness.  The 
lengths  between  headers  is  9  feet. 

The  main  propelling  engine  is  of  the  vertical,  direct-acting,  inverted,  jet- 
condensing,  quadruple-expansion  type. 

*  Extracts  from  Journal  of  the  American  Society  of  Naval  Engineers,  vol.  xii. 

165 


Number  of  cylinders 4 

^  High-pressure 16  3^ 

Diameter  of  cylinders,        j    First  intermediate-pressure      .        .  25 

in  inches                             |    Second  intermediate-pressure  .        .  38 3^2 

(^  Low-pressure 60 

Stroke,  inches 40 

Diameter  of  piston  rods,  inches 4^4 

Order  of  cylinders  from  forward:  (i)  high-pressure,  (2)  first  intermediate- 
pressure,  (3)  second  intermediate-pressure,  (4)  low-pressure.  Sequence  of  cranks: 
high- pressure,  low-pressure,  first  intermediate,  second  intermediate. 

The  high-pressure  and  first  intermediate-pressure  are  at  180  degrees,  as  are 
the  second  intermediate-pressure  and  low-pressure,  the  former  being  at  90  degrees 
with  the  latter. 

There  is  one  four-bladed  propeller,  14  feet  in  diameter  with  15  feet  6  inches 
pitch. 

Two  mechanical  stokers  of  the  Crowe  pattern  were  fitted  to  each  boiler.  This 
stoker  consists,  essentially,  of  a  set  of  bars  carried  from  front  to  back  of  the 
furnace,  over  a  number  of  fair  leaders,  by  two  chains,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
furnace.  At  the  back  of  the  furnace  the  chains  and  bars  pass  over  a  drum  and 
thence  back  over  fair  leaders  to  the  front  of  the  furnace  again. 

During  the  entire  trip  the  stokers  worked  satisfactorily.  During  most  of 
the  time  little  or  no  smoke  was  emitted  from  the  pipe  except  while  the  fires  were 
being  worked  from  the  back,  or  when  an  additional  amount  of  coal  worked  in 
under  the  plate  in  the  front  of  the  furnace.  The  air  pump  worked  regularly  and 
quietly,  but  for  some  reason,  probably  due  to  the  large  clearance  required  in  the 
cylinders  of  this  type  of  pump,  the  vacuum  carried  was  not  much  in  excess  of 
233^  inches. 

Lead  did  not  melt  during  anj^  of  the  tests  when  suspended  in  the  up-takes  just 
over  the  top  row  of  4-inch  tubes  or  practically  where  the  gases  leave  the  boiler 
proper. 

Lead  suspended  in  the  boiler  where  the  gases  leave  the  last  row  of  2-inch 
tubes  melted  on  the  test  of  October  15,  but  only  softened  on  the  tests  of  October 
10  and  13. 

A  i)roximate  analysis  of  the  coal  used,  gave  results  as  follows : 

Per  cent. 

Fixed  carbon 57-oo 

Volatile  matter 37-oo 

Moisture 2.00 

Ash 4.00 

100.00 
Heating  value  of  coal  by  calorimeter       .        .        .        .      13,180  B.  T.  U. 

The  following  table  gives  the  data  and  results  of  the  tests: 


166 


COAL  CONSUMPTION  OF  S.  S.  "JOHN  W.  GATES" 


Number  of  test 

I 

2 

3 

4 

Date,  1900 

Oct.  10 

Oct.  II 

Oct.  13 

Oct.   15 

Duration  of  test,  hours      .... 

10 

4 

8 

6 

Steam      (  At  boiler 

244 

244 

248 

250 

oieain      i  ^^j.  receiver     . 

pressure,  4  ^^^  ^^^^-^^^   _ 

pounds  ^     ^^  ^^^^.^^^      _ 

107.8 

324 

7-5 

II3-9 

34-1 

7-9 

107.7 

32.9 

6.5 

108.7 

34-0 

9.0 

Vacuum,  inches  . 

24 

23-3 

233 

23.0 

Temner      f  Engine  room  . 
at^?e          Injection  water 

83-5 
61.3 

82.7 
53-6 

80.0 
50.0 

76.2 
61.3 

,         '     <  Hot  well  feed  water  entering 

^^g^^^^    ^       heater 

l^Feed  water  leaving  heater  . 

II3-5 

II3-9 

II7-3 

115-3 

186.0 

179-7 

187.0 

186.5 

Links  in  from  i  High-pressure 

30 

•75 

3-25 

•75 

f  11  th             J  istmtermediate-pressure 

3-5 

1.5  to  2.25 

375 

1. 00 

luumrow,     -j  2nd    intermediate-pressure 

3-5 

1.75  to  2.25 

375 

1.50 

mcnes         (  Low-pressure    . 

4-5 

1-75 

375 

2.25 

r  High-pressure  cylinder   . 
1st      intermediate-pressure 

340.1 

425.6 

330.2 

437-8 

Indicated       1       cylinder 

388.5 

516.6 

354-2 

490.7 

horse-power  ^  2nd    intermediate-pressure 

.«/ 

340.1 

417.9 

346.5 

390.0 

Low-pressure  cylinder    . 
I  Total 

362.0 

458.2 

312.7 

465-9 

1430.7 

1818.3 

1343-6 

1784.4 

Revolutions  per  minute,  main  engine 

82.77 

89.8 

77-84 

85-36 

'  Total  coal,  moist,  pounds    . 
Moisture  in  coal,  per  cent. 
Coal  ■{  Coal  per  hour,  dry,  pounds 

22270 

14535 

17099 

20655 

4.1 

4-1 

4.1 

4.1 

21357 

3488.7 

2049.8 

3301.4 

Dry  coal  per  hour  per  square  foot 
l^      of  grate  surface,  pounds    . 

19.77 

32.26 

19.98 

30.58 

Coal  per  indicated   horse-    j  Coal  as  fired 

1-56 

1.998* 

1-59 

1-93* 

power  main  engine,  pounds  (  Dry  coal   . 

1.50 

1.92 

1-53 

1.85 

Draft  in  up-take,  inches  of  water     . 

•30 

Jet  in  funnel 

fet  in  funnel 

.58 

•33 

.60 

Temperature  of  waste  gases 

j  Lead  did 
I  not  melt 

Lead  did 
not  melt 

Lead  did 
not  melt 

Lead  did 
not  melt 

Time  dynamo  engine  was  in  operation    . 

3  hours 

2  hours 

55  minutes 

Not  running 

Double   strokes  \  ^''  P""^P'  hig^-P'"^^^^^^ 

22 

237 

20.1 

19.0 

per  minute      j  Air    pump,   low-pressure 
^                         [  h  eed  pump  . 

19 
18 

22 
24 

18.8 
18.7 

16.2 
23.8 

*  The  increase  in  coal  consumption  per  indicated  horse-power  is  caused  by  the  waste  of  steam  due  to  increas- 
ing the  draft  by  means  of  a  steam  jet  in  the  funnel.  This  jet  was  supplied  by  a  i^^-inch  pipe  and  nearly  doubled 
the  draft. 

Auxiliaries  in  Operation:  Air  pump,  feed  pump,  stoker  engine  and  dynamo  engine  part  of  time,  as  noted 
above. 


167 


:    ^ 

:      u 

o 


z 


168 


REPORT  OF  TEST  OF  A  BABCOCK  &  WILCOX  BOILER  FOR 
U.  S.  BATTLESHIPS  "WYOMING"  AND  "ARKANSAS" 

with  notes  by 

Lieutenant  Commander  H.  C.  Dinger,  U.  S.  N.* 

A  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boiler,  representing  the  type  proposed  for  installa- 
tion on  the  battleships  "Wyoming"  and  "  Arkansas,"  was  tested  by  a  Board 
of  Naval  Officers  consisting  of  Commander  C.  W.  Dyson  and  Lieutenant 
Commanders  J.  K.  Robison  and  H.  C.  Dinger,  U.  S.  N.,  on  June  13  to  20, 
1910. 

The  contracts  for  the  above  vessels  call  for  economy  tests  of  one  boiler 
of  the  type  proposed  before  installation  on  the  vessel.  The  test  boiler  is 
similar  in  all  respects  to  those  which  will  be  installed  on  the  vessels,  except 
that  it  is  half  the  width.  The  actual  boilers  for  the  vessels  will  have  119 
square  feet  of  grate  and  5,353  square  feet  heating  surface,  instead  of  57.89 
square  feet  of  grate  and  2,571.39  square  feet  of  heating  surface  in  the  test 
boiler. 

The  contract  required  four  tests  of  twenty-four  hours  each  at  successive 
rates  of  combustion  of  approximately  fifteen,  twenty-five,  thirty-five,  and 
not  less  than  forty  pounds  of  coal  per  square  foot  of  grate  surface  per  hour, 
beginning  with  the  lowest  and  ending  with  the  highest  rate  of  combustion. 

Conditio7is  of  Tests. — The  tests  were  required  to  be  conducted  continu- 
ously, except  that  a  maximum  time  of  two  hours  will  be  allowed  for  cleaning 
fires  after  each  twenty-four-hour  test  before  beginning  the  next  twenty-four- 
hour  test.  The  only  cleaning  of  boiler  tubes  allowed  was  by  the  use  of 
steam  or  air  lances  in  the  same  manner  as  is  customary  in  actual  service ;  the 
fuel  to  be  clean  bituminous  coal,  and  allowed  to  be  hand-picked;  each  test 
to  be  made  at  maximum  pressure  of  210  pounds  above  the  atmosphere,  and 
the  average  air  pressure  in  the  fireroom  at  the  highest  rate  of  combustion 
not  to  exceed  two  inches  of  water. 

The  equivalent  evaporation  from  and  at  212  degrees  F.  at  the  highest 
rate  of  combustion  of  not  less  than  forty  pounds  per  square  foot  of  grate 
surface  per  hour  was  required  to  be  not  less  than  eleven  pounds  of  water 
into  dry  steam  per  pound  of  combustible. 

These  contract  requirements  were  intended  to  represent  actual  service 
conditions  as  nearly  as  possible.  The  tests  were  arranged  so  that  the  effect 
due  to  accumulation  of  soot  after  several  days'  steaming  would  be  taken 
into  account.  Thus,  the  results  of  the  test  at  40  pounds  per  square  foot  of 
grate  represent  the  performance  of  the  boiler  when  called  upon  for  full 
power  after  several  days'  steaming. 

♦Reprinted  from  Journal  of  American  Society  of  Naval  Engineers,  for  November,  1910 
(Vol.  xxii). 

169 


-BLOWER  ENG. 


/ 


/ 


TEST  HOUSE 


GAS  ANALYSIS - 
BOOTH 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  TEST   BOILER  AND  TEST   HOUSE. 
BABCOCK  &.  WILCOX  CO; 


170 


The  following  extracts  are  from  the  report  of  the  Board,  with  some 
additional  notes.     The  data  given  are  from  the  Board's  report. 

General  Arrangement. — ^Thc  apparatus  was  arranged  as  follows: 

The  boiler  was  erected  in  a  sheet-iron  structvirc,  the  general  arrangement  of 
which  is  shown  in  the  cut  on  p.  170.  The  arrangements  for  supplying  forced  draft 
are  also  shown.  The  blower  discharged  at  floor  line  at  the  back  of  the  boiler, 
against  a  vertical  baffle  wall,  which  deflected  the  air  upward. 

The  main  steam  pipe  connected  to  the  steam  main  for  power  house,  and  by  a 
bleeder  valve  to  an  atmospheric  discharge,  terminating  in  a  three-branch  muffler. 
Both  discharges  were  controlled  by  stop  valves  with  stems  extending  to  fircroom 
floor. 

Feed  Heater. — A  Rcilly  feed  heater  was  used,  with  a  branch  from  the  main 
steam  pipe  for  supplying  the  necessary  steam.  The  pressure  in  feed-heater  shell 
was  regulated  by  a  valve  in  the  steam-supply  pipe.  This  heater  was  tested  for 
tightness  before  and  after  each  test. 

Steam  Jet. — A  pipe  led  from  the  main  steam  pipe  to  a  jet  in  the  smoke  pipe, 
with  a  valve  for  regulating  the  amount  of  opening. 

Smoke  Pipe. — -The  smoke  pipe  was  of  sheet-steel,  having  19.63  square  feet 
cross-sectional  area,  100  feet  in  height  above  the  grates.  The  location  of  smoke 
pipe  with  regard  to  up-takes  is  shown  on  the  diagram. 

Calibrated  thermometers  were  placed  in  the  feed  pipe  as  close  to  the  boiler- 
feed  stop  valves  as  possible.  Two  nitrogen-filled  thermometers  were  located  in 
the  up-takes  for  obtaining  the  temperature  of  the  escaping  gases.  A  thermometer 
for  obtaining  temperature  of  the  outside  air,  and  an  aneroid  barometer  for  in- 
dicating atmospheric  pressure  were  hung  outside  of  the  testing  room. 

The  draft  pressures  were  taken  through  tuloes  inserted  in  the  lowest  dusting 
door  of  the  first  gas  passage  and  in  the  highest  dusting  door  of  the  last  passage,  the 
air  pressure  in  compartment  being  measured  by  an  air  gauge  hung  on  the  bulkhead 
of  the  compartment. 

Gas  Anaylsis. — An  Orsatt  apparatus  for  making  analyses  of  the  furnace  gases 
was  located  in  a  small  compartment  adjacent  to  the  test  room.  The  gas  samples 
were  taken  from  the  up-take  by  means  of  a  J^-inch  pipe  leading  to  the  gas-analysis 
apparatus.     Samples  of  gas  for  analysis  were  taken  at  frequent  intervals. 

Method  of  Weighing  Coal  and  Ashes. — A  platform  scale  for  weighing  was 
situated  in  the  air  lock.  The  coal  was  weighed  in  barrows,  the  weight  of  empty 
barrows  being  carefully  checked  at  intervals.  Each  barrow  was  carefully 
balanced  with  a  load  of  200  pounds  of  coal.  The  weighing  was  all  performed  in 
the  air  lock.  No  inconvenience  by  reason  of  the  boiler  room  being  under  pressure 
was  experienced.  At  the  end  of  each  hour  the  floor  was  swept  up  and  estimate  of 
coal  on  floor  made. 

Method  of  Weighing  and  Pumping  Water. — The  arrangements  for  weighing 
water  consisted  of  a  rectangular  feed  tank  on  top  of  which  were  located  two 
weighing  tanks  mounted  on  platform  scales.  The  scales  were  tested  before  and 
during  tests,  and  weights  of  empty  tanks  were  checked  at  intervals.  The  water 
was  led  from  the  city  main  to  each  weighing  tank,  where,  after  being  weighed, 
the  tank  was  dumped    into    the    feed    tank.     The    feed    tank    was    calibrated 

171 


172 


and  fitted  with  a  gauge  glass  so  that  the  water  eould  be  ehccked  at  any 
time. 

The  boiler-feed  pumps  had  a  suction  and  an  overflow  pipe  to  the  feed  tank, 
and  discharged  through  feed-water  heater  to  the  main  feed  valve  on  boiler.  A 
steam  gauge  and  water  gauge,  indicating  steam  pressure  and  water  level  in  boiler, 
were  located  at  the  pump,  thus  assisting  in  pump  regulation  and  in  maintaining 
a  constant  feed  supply.  At  the  end  of  each  hour  the  actual  amount  of  water 
was  checked  up. 

Quality  of  Steam. — For  observing  the  quality  of  the  steam  generated  a  Bar- 
rus  throttling  calorimeter  was  fitted  on  a  branch  from  the  main  steam  pipe  at 
a  point  about  i8  inches  from  the  steam  drum.  The  collecting  nozzle  was  of 
standard  pattern.  The  calorimeter  was  calibrated  before  the  tests  by  taking 
readings  with  the  pressure  both  rising  and  falling,  with  no  steam  leaving  the 
boiler  except  through  the  calorimeter.  From  these  standard  readings  the  amount 
of  moisture  was  calculated  by  the  formula 

Q  =  — — J X  100, 

in  which  Q  =  per  cent,  of  moisture,  T  =  calibration  reading  of  the  lower  ther- 
mometer, /  =  test  reading  of  the  lower  thermometer,  L  =  latent  heat  of  the 
steam  at  the  boiler  pressure. 

Moisture  in  Coal. — Samples  of  coal  were  taken  for  each  test,  preserved  in 
airtight  jars,  and  from  these  the  moisture  in  the  coal  was  determined  by  laboratory 
test. 

Co7idition  of  Fires  and  Ash  Pans  at  Beginning  and  End  of  Tests. — The  depth 
of  fires  was  judged  by  a  member  of  the  Board  at  the  start  and  at  the  end  of 
each  test,  the  fires  having  been  brought  to  similar  conditions  at  the  beginning 
and  the  end  of  each  test. 

Ash  pans  were  clean  at  the  beginning  of  each  test,  and  were  cleaned  at  the 
end  of  the  test.  Water  was  used  very  sparingly  in  the  ash  pan,  but  was  always 
used  at  the  times  that  fires  were  cleaned.  Fires  were  cleaned  on  each  of  the  twenty- 
four  hour  tests  shortly  before  the  end  of  test  in  order  to  enable  them  to  be  brought 
as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  same  condition  as  at  the  beginning. 

The  Tests. — Six  test  runs  were  made,  the  first  four  being  those  required  by 
the  contracts  for  the  "Wyoming"  and  "Arkansas,"  at  rates  of  combustion  of 
15.  25,  35,  and  40  pounds  of  coal,  respectively,  per  square  foot  of  grate,  each  test 
being  for  twenty-four  hours. 

The  fifth  test  was  a  test  for  the  maximum  capacity  of  the  boiler,  and  con- 
tinued for  three  hours. 

The  sixth  test  was  made  at  the  rate  of  about  45  pounds  per  square  foot  of 
grate  per  hour,  to  determine  the  effect  of  lowering  the  back  end  of  grate  six 
inches  below  the  position  in  the  previous  tests. 

Coal. — The  coal  was  hand-picked  Pocahontas  of  excellent  quality.  It 
burned  freely  and  clinkered  very  little.  The  coal  used  on  all  the  tests  was  from 
the  same  lot. 

Firemen  employed. — The  firemen  emjDlojxd  were  ordinary  marine  firemen 

173 


picked  up  on  the  Hobokcn  docks  for  the  time  being,  and  were  given  no  special 
training  for  the  tests  or  for  this  particular  type  of  boiler.  Several  firemen  were 
discharged  for  drunkenness  and  others  taken  on  during  the  tests.  One  water 
tender,  two  firemen,  and  two  coal  passers  were  on  duty  in  each  shift. 

The  operation  of  the  boilers  and  of  the  firing  was  supervised  by  the  Company's 
engineers,  who  stood  watches  in  three  shifts  of  eight  hours  each. 

The  excellent  evaporative  results  obtained  indicate  the  high  efficiency  pos- 
sible with  the  ordinary  run  of  firemen,  if  properly  supervised  and  directed.     This 


FERRYBOAT  "SAN  PEDRO." 
Owners:  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Ffi  Railway  Company.      Babcock  &  Wilcox  Boilers. 

Horse-power 


2500    I.NDICATED 


supervision  provided  for  careful  and  regular  firing,  keeping  fires  level  and  not 
over  eight  inches  thick,  with  proper  use  of  the  slice  bar  and  leveling  hoc.  Special 
attention  was  paid  to  making  all  the  boiler  casings  airtight. 

Methods  oj  Starting  and  Stopping  Tests. — In  the  first  test  the  alternate  method 
of  starting  and  stopping  the  test  was  employed.  In  the  second  and  all  succeeding 
tests  the  flying  start  was  employed,  it  being  much  more  satisfactory  under  the 
conditions  required  by  the  contract  than  either  the  standard  or  the  alternate 
methods. 

Gas  analyses  were  taken  by  one  of  the  Company's  engineers,  closely  observed 
by  members  of  the  Board.  All  other  data  were  taken  simultaneously  by  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Company  and  by  one  member  of  the  Board  and  the  assistants 
to  the  Board. 

Test  No.  I. — At  15  ])Dunds  per  square  foot  of  grate  ])er  liour. 

Begun  at  6:08  p.m.,  June  13;  finished  at  6:08  p.m.,  June  14,  1910. 


174 


Weather  during  the  test,  warm  and  clear. 

The  blower  was  not  run,  the  compartment  was  open,  and  the  steam  jet  closed. 

The  evaporation  from  and  at  212  degrees  F.  per  pound  combustible  was  12.15. 

Test  No.  2. — At  25  pounds  per  square  foot  of  grate  per  hour. 

Begun  at  8:30  p.m.,  June  14;  finished  at  8:30  p.m.,  June  15,  1910. 

The  steam  jet  was  partly  open.  The  forced-draft  blower  was  used  to  ven- 
tilate the  fireroom,  but  the  compartment  was  not  closed. 

Weather  during  the  test  was  warm  and  clear,  slightly  cloudy  at  the  end  of 
the  test. 

The  evaporation  from  and  at  212  degrees  F.  per  pound  of  combustible  was 
12.07. 

Test  No.  J. — At  35  pounds  per  square  foot  of  grate  per  hour. 

Test  begun  at  10:25  p.m.,  June  15;  finished  at  10:25  P-^-,  June  16,  1910. 

The  steam  jet  was  partly  open.  The  forced-draft  blower  was  in  operation 
and  the  compartment  closed. 

Weather  during  test,  cloudy  and  rainy. 

Rate  of  evaporation  from  and  at  212  degrees  F.  per  pound  of  combustible 
was  11.77. 

Test  No.  4. — At  40  pounds  per  square  foot  of  grate  per  hour. 

Test  begun  at  11:30  p.m.,  June  16;  finished  at  11:30  p.m.,  June  17,  1910. 

The  steam  jet  was  partly  open.  The  forced-draft  blower  was  in  operation 
and  the  compartment  closed. 

Weather  during  the  test,  rainy  during  the  first  twelve  hours,  clear  the  last 
twelve  hours. 

The  evaporation  from  and  at  212  degrees  F.  per  pound  of  combustible  was 
11.89. 

Test  No.  5. — At  maximum  capacity. 

This  test  was  conducted  on  June  18,  1910. 

The  fires  were  lighted  with  the  boiler  in  following  condition: 

Temperature  of  water  in  boiler,  102  degrees;  water  level  in  glass,  1^4  inches; 
furnaces  primed. 

Lighted  fires  at  9:04  a.m. 

Steam  formed  at  9:12  a.m. 

Steam  pressure  50  pounds,  9  h.,  16  m.,  30  s.,  a.m. 

Steam  pressure  100  pounds,  9h.,  i8m.,A.M. 

Steam  pressure  150  pounds,  9  h.,  18  m.,  55  s.,  a.m. 

Steam  pressure  200  pounds,  9  h.,  19  m.,  45  s.,  a.m. 

Steam  at  200  pounds  in  15  m.  45  s. 

The  test  began  at  9:38  a.m.,  and  ended  at  12:38  p.m. 

The  steam  jet  was  wide  open.  The  forced-draft  blower  was  in  operation, 
and  the  compartment  was  closed. 

At  the  end  of  this  test  the  fires  were  hauled  and  boiler  carefully  examined. 
There  were  no  signs  of  any  leaks,  and  no  distortion  of  any  kind,  either  in  tubes 
baffles  or  casing,  was  noticed. 

The  weather  during  the  test  was  clear. 

The  evaporation  from  and  at  212  degrees  F.  per  pound  of  combustible  was 

IO-33- 

175 


■ty.''\ 


'ft 


176 


I 


Test  No.  6. — At  rate  of  45  pounds  per  square  foot  of  grate  per  hour,  with 
the  back  end  of  grate  lowered  six  inches  below  the  level  at  which  it  was  carried 
during  the  previous  tests. 

Test  begun  at  10:00  a.m.,  June  20;  finished  at  4:00  p.m.,  the  same  day. 

The  weather  during  the  test  was  clear. 

The  evaporation  from  and  at  212  degrees  F.  per  pound  of  combustible  was 
11.30. 


S.  S.  "KIANG  WHA" 
The  China  Merchant  Steam  Navigation  Company.     Babcock  &  Wilcox  Boilers,  2750  Indicated  Horse-power 

The  curve  of  rate  of  evaporation  appears  to  show  that  there  is  a  very  small 
falling  off  in  efficiency  until  a  consumption  of  about  45  pounds  of  coal  per  square 
foot  of  grate  per  hour  is  reached,  and  that  the  boiler  is  almost  as  efficient  at  high 
rates  of  combustion  as  at  moderate  rates  under  natural  draft.  This  is  a  highly 
gratifying  result  and  indicates  that  the  system  of  baffling  is  very  efficient. 

The  difference  in  evaporative  results,  with  the  original  grate  and  with  the 
back  of  grate  lowered,  is  insufficient  for  determining  whether  there  is  any  actual 
advantage  or  disadvantage  due  to  the  lowering  of  the  grate,  when  coal  alone 
is  used  for  fuel. 

The  Board  reports  that  the  sample  boiler  tested,  representing  the  type  of 
boiler  to  be  supplied  for  use  on  board  the  U.  S.  S.  "Arkansas"  and  the  U.  S.  S. 
"Wyoming,"  has  fully  met  all  requirements  of  the  contract  as  to  evaporative 
efficiency,  and  recommends  the  approval  of  this  type  of  boiler  for  general  use 
in  the  naval  service. 


177 


178 


REMARKS 

The  firemen,  while  completely  unskilled,  so  far  as  test  boiler  firing  was  con- 
cerned, soon  became  very  much  interested  in  the  results  of  the  gas  analyses, 
and  realized  the  value  of  so  firing  as  to  maintain  as  high  a  percentage  of  CO  2 
as  possible.  This  interest  manifested  itself  very  early  in  the  tests,  in  the  de- 
creased density  of  the  smoke  escaping  from  the  stack. 

Particular  attention  is  called  to  the  excellent  results  obtained  with  this 
boiler  under  the  maximum  rate  of  combustion  obtained,  which  slightly  exceeded 
seventy  (70)  pounds  of  coal  per  square  foot  of  grate  per  hour.  The  boiler  under 
this  condition  steamed  very  freely,  with  no  appreciable  increase  in  the  wetness 
of  the  steam,  while  the  falling  ofif  in  efficiency  under  all  test  conditions,  from  the 
lowest  rate  of  combustion  to  the  highest,  was  small  and  very  regular. 

After  the  completion  of  the  tests  the  boiler  was  opened,  cleaned,  and  thor- 
oughly inspected  for  deterioration.  Not  a  tube  showed  any  signs  of  distortion, 
all  tubes  and  headers  were  perfectly  free  from  blistering,  and  all  baffies  were 
still  properly  placed.  This  result  would  seem  to  indicate  that  when  a  boiler  of 
this  type  is  clean,  free  from  scale,  and  built  of  proper  material  it  is  perfectly  safe 
under  all  regular  rates  of  combustion,  up  to  the  highest  rate  to  which  it  was 
subjected  in  these  tests.  This  finding,  necessarily,  supposes  intelligent  super- 
vision and  proper  regulation  of  feed  water  during  such  rates  of  combustion. 

DESCRIPTION  AND  DIMENSIONS  OP  BOILER  AND  APPURTENANCES 


Diameter  of  drum,  inches 0-42 

Length  of  drum,  feet  and  inches 10-03^^4 

Tubes,  number,  560;  outside  diameter,  inches 0-02 

length,  feet  and  inches 8-02 

thickness No.   10  B.  W.  G. 

number,     16;  outside  diameter,  inches 0-04 

length,  feet  and  inches. 8-02 

thickness No.   6  B.   W.   G. 

number,     16;  outside  diameter,  inches 0-04 

length,  feet  and  inches 6-04 

thickness No.  6  B.  W.  G. 

Furnace,  kind  of Single,  full  width  of  boiler 

length,  average,  feet  and  inches 7-05 

width,  feet  and  inches 8-03  J<^ 

height,  average,  feet  and  inches 3-01 

Grate  surface,  length,  feet 7-00 

width,  feet    8-0334 

area,  square  feet 57-89 

Heating  surface,  area,  square  feet *2,57i.39 

ratio  to  grate 44.4  :  i 

Grate  bars,  kind  (double) U.  S.  Navy  Standard  Bar 

width  of  air  spaces,  inch o-oo3^ 

ratio  of  grate  to  air  space i  :  0.427 

Smoke  pipe,  area,  square  feet 19-63 

height,  feet 100.00 

ratio  to  grate i  :  2.94 

Water  space,  cubic  inches 301,561.0 

Steam  space,  cubic  inches 102,889.0 

179 


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Weight  of  boiler  and  all  fittings  except  uptakes  and  smoke  pipe: 

Without  water,  pounds 58,900.0 

Water,  pounds 11,000.0 

Total  with  water,  pounds 69,900.0 

Total  weight  per  square  foot  of  grate  surface,  pounds 1,209.3 

heating  surface,  pounds 25.4 

Blower  engines,  kind Simple,  single-cylinder 

dimensions  of  cylinders,  inches 10X10 

fan,  kind Sirocco 

diameter,  feet  and  inches 4-02 

width,  feet  and  inches 2-05 

Area  of  blower  inlet,  square  inches            1,164.15 

outlet,  square  inches 1,590.43 

Feed  heater,  kind Rcilly 

pumps,  kind Two   Worthington    Duple.K 

dimensions  of  cylinders,  inches 10X6X10 

*  The  heating  surface  given  is  that  exposed  to  radiant  heat  and  to  direct  impact  of  the  gases 
and  docs  not  include  such  parts  of  tube  or  other  surfaces  as  are  covered  by  brick  work. 


STEAM   PACKET  "SANTA  ANNA" 

Owners:  A.  W.  Beadle  Co.,  Sax  Francisco,  Cal.     Babcock  &  Wilcox  Boilers,  700 

Indicated  Horse-power 


U.  S.  S.  "WYOMING"  BOILER-TESTS  WITH  COAL 


Number  of  test 

Date  of  test.  1910 j 

Duration  of  test,  hours 

Kind  of  fuel 

Kind  of  start 


State  of  weather 


Average  Pressures 

Barometer,  inches 

Steam  pressure  by  gauge,  lbs.  .  . 
Force  of  draft  at  base  of  pipe — ins. 

of  water,  gauge  reading,  3d  Pass. 
Force  of  draft  in   furnace — ins.  of 

water,  gauge  reading,  ist  Pass. 
Force  of  draft  in   ash   pit — ins.  of 

water      ....•••• 

Average  TemperaUires 

External  air,  dgs.  F 

Fireroom,  dgs.  F 

Steam,  dgs.  F 

Feed  water  entering  boiler,  dgs.  F. 
Air  entering  ash  pit,  dgs.  F.  .  .  . 
Escaping  gases  from  boiler,  dgs.  F. 

Fuel 

Weight  of  coal  as  fired,*  lbs. 
Moisture  in  coal,  per  cent. 
Weight  of  dry  coal  consumed,  lbs. 
Weight  of  ash  and  refuse,  lbs. 
Weight  of  combustible  consumed 

lbs 

Per  cent,  of  refuse  in  dry  coal   . 

Fuel  per  Hour 

Coal  consumed  per  hour,  lbs.  .  . 
Dry  coal  consumed  per  hour,  lbs. 
Combustible  consumed   per  hour, 

lbs 

Coal  consumed  per  hour  per  sq.  ft. 

G.  S.,  lbs 

Dry  coal  consumed  per  hour  per  sq. 

ft.  G.  S.,  lbs 

Combustible   consumed   per   hour 

per  sq.  ft.  G.  S.,  lbs 


I 

June 
13  and  14 
24.06 


Alternate 
Clear 


30.06 
202.0 

•31 

.16 

o 


82. 

93-7 
388.3 
211. 6 

93-7 
491 


21,200 

.88 

21,013 

1,261 

•9,752 
6.00 


881 
873 

821 

15.22 

15-08 

14.18 


2 

June 

14  and  15 

24-5 

Poca 

Flying 

Clear 

Partly 

Cloudy 


29.91 
201.4 

■94 
.46 
o 


74- 

97.6 

388.1 

211. 4 

97.6 

545 


35.180 

•74 
34.920 
1.338 

33.582 
3-83 


1.436 
1.4^5 

1.371 

24.81 

24.62 

23.68 


3 

June 
15  and  16 

24 
hontas, 
Flying 
Cloudy 

and 
Rainy 


29.90 
202.8 

1. 71 

•75 
1.41 


67. 

88. 
388.7 
207.8 

86. 
602 


49.300 

•74 

48,935 

1,607 

47.328 
3-28 


2.054 
2,039 

1.972 

35-48 

35^22 

34-07 


4 

June 
16  and  i; 

24 

hand 
Flying 
Rainy 
Partly 
Clear 


29-83 
201.6 

2.21 

1.04 

1-95 


69. 

94- 
388.2 
204.1 

94. 
628 


57.700 

1.06 

57,088 

2,477 

54,611 
4-34 


2,404 
2,379 

2,275 

41-53 

41.10 

39-30 


5 
June 

18 

3 

picked. 
Flying 

Clear 


29.62 
200.4 

2.21 

4-70 

3.00 


84. 
106. 

387-7 
194.4 
106. 
659 


12,200 

I       '"^ 
12,108 

I  1,035 

11.073 
8.55 


4,066 
4.036 

3.691 
70.24 
69.72 
63-77 


6 

June 

20 

6 

excellent 

Flying 

Clear 


29.82 
200.6 

2.06 

.92 

1.78 


90. 
III. 

387.9 
200.9 
III. 
604 


15.218 

-75 
15,104 

,      743 

,14.361 
1     4-92 


2,536 
2,517 

2,393 

43-81 

43-48 

41-34 


*  Including  equivalent  of  wood  used  in  lighting  fires. 

182 


U.  S.  S.  "  WYOMING  "  BOILER-TESTS  WITH  COAL 


Number  of  test 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

Coal  per  hour  per  sq.  ft.  H.  S.,  lbs. 

•343 

-.=^59 

•799 

•935 

1.581 

.986 

Dry  coal  per  hour  per  sq.  ft.  H.  S.,  lbs. 

•340 

-554 

•793 

•925 

1.569 

-979 

Combustible   per  hour  per   sq.   ft. 

H.  S.,  lbs 

•319 

■533 

.767 

.885 

1-435 

-932 

Quality  of  Steam 

Per  cent,  of  moisture  in  steam  .    . 

0 

0 

.086 

.172 

•430 

•C59 

Quality  of  steam  (dry  steam  =  loo) 

100. 

100. 

99.914 

99.828 

99-57 

99-341 

Water 

Total  weight  of  water  fed  to  boiler,* 

lbs 

228095 

385264 

527904 

613754 

106964 

153571 

Water    actually    evaporated,    cor- 

rected for  quality  of  steam,  lbs. 

228095 

385264 

527450 

612698 

106504 

152559 

Factor  of  evaporation 

1.052 

1.052 

1.056 

1.060 

1.069 

1.064 

Equivalent  water  evaporated  into 

dry  steam  from  and  at  212°,  lbs. 

239956 

405298 

556987 

649460 

1 13853 

162323 

Water  per  Hour 

Water   evaporated   per   hour,    cor- 

rected for  quality  of  steam,  lbs. 

9480 

15725 

21978 

25530 

35501 

25426 

Equivalent   evaporation  from   and 

at  212°,  lbs 

9974 

16543 

23208 

27060 

37951 

27054 

Equivalent   evaporation   from   and 

at  212°  per  sq.  ft.  G.  S.,  lbs.    . 

172 

286 

401 

468 

656 

467 

Same  per  sq.  ft.  of  heating  surface, 

lbs 

3-88 

6.43 

9-03 

10.52 

14.76 

10.52 

Economic  Residts 

Water  apparently  evaporated  under 

actual  conditions  per  lb.  of  coal 

as  fired,  lbs 

10.76 

10.95 

10.71 

10.64 

8.77 

10.09 

Apparent    equivalent    evaporation 

from  and  at  212°  per  lb.  of  coal 

(including  moisture),  lbs.      .    . 

11.32 

11.52 

11.30 

11.26 

9-37 

10.67 

Equivalent   evaporation   from   and 

at  2 12°  per  lb.  of  dry  coal,  lbs.  . 

11.42 

II. 61 

11.38 

11.38 

9-45 

10.75 

Equivalent   evaporation   from   and 

at  2 1 2  °  per  lb.  of  combustible,  lbs. 

12.15 

12.07 

11.77 

11.89 

10.33 

11.30 

Efficiency 

Efficiency  of  boiler;  heat  absorbed 

by  the  boiler  per  lb.  of  combus- 

tible divided  by  the  heat  value  of 

one  lb.  of  combustible  .... 

74-39 'c 

73-95% 

72.06% 

72.80% 

63-25% 

69.18% 

Efficiency  of  boiler,  including  grate; 

heat  absorbed  by  the  boiler  per 

lb.  of  dry  coal,   divided  by  the 

heat  value  of  one  lb.  of  dry  coal 

72-50% 

73-70% 

72.24% 

72.24% 

60.00% 

68.25% 

Remarks  and  Observations 

Kind  of  firing  (spreading,  alternate, 

or  coking) 

Spread 
6-7 

ing;      fires 
6-8 

level. 

doors 

fired  In 

rotation 

Average  thickness  of  fires,  ins.    . 

7-10 

7-10 

13-14 

7-10 

11.30    P.M. 

to  9  A.M., 

for  each   door  during   time  fires 

3  min. 

3  min. 

23^  miin. 

2  3 '2  min.; 

9  A.M.  to  10 
A.M.    2  -^X 

1 3^^  at  start 
I  at  end 

23^2  min. 

were  in  normal  condition  .    .    . 

min.;  10  A. 
M.  to  end, 2 

min. 

*  Corrected  for  inequality  of  water  level  and  steam  pressure  at  beginning  and  end  of  test. 

183 


FUEL  AND  GAS  ANALYSES 

PROXIMATE  AN.\LYSIS  OF  FUEL 


Coal 

Combustible 

Fixed  carbon 

Volatile  matter 

Moisture 

Ash 

Per  cent. 
75-26 
20.27 

.86 
3.61 

Per  cent. 
79.00 
2 1. 00 

Total 

Sulphur  separately  determined 

100.00 
•72 

100.00 

•75 

ULTIMATE  ANALYSIS  OF  DRY  FUEL 


Coal         Comliustible 

Carbon  (C) 

Hydrogen  (H) 

Oxygen  (O)  

Nitrogen  (N) 

Sulphur  (S) 

Ash 

Per  cent. 

87.51 

4-74 

2.75 

.92 

.70 

3.38 

1 00.00 

Per  cent. 

90.57 

4.91 

2.85 
.95 
.72 

Moisture  in  sample  of  fuel  as  received 

100.00 

ANALYSIS  OF  ASH  AND  REFUSE 


Combustible 
Earthy  matter 


I 

2                 3 

31.93      57-52      57.48 

68.07          42-4''^          42.52 

60.99 

39.01 


-0.72 

29. 28 


6 

Per  cent. 


-0.72 
29.28 


CALORIFIC  VALUE  OF  FUEL 


Calorific  value  by  calorimeter,  per  pound  of  dry  coal     . 
Calorific  value  by  calorimeter,  per  pound  of  combustible 


mean    .    15273    .    B.T.U. 
.    15838   .       Do. 


ANALYSES  OF  DRY  GASES 


Carbon  dioxide  (CO  2) 
Oxygen  (O)        .        .        .        , 
Carbon  monoxide  (CO)  . 
Nitrogen  (N)  (by  difference) 


I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 
Per  cent. 

13.2 

13.6 

12.9 

13.6 

11.6 

12.7 

4.2 

4-7 

4.5 

3-9 

5.07 

30 

0.5 

0.4 

0.5 

0.8 

1.09 

0.9 

82.1 

8 1. 3 

82.1 

81.7 

82.24 

83.4 
100.00 

184 


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1 86 


TEST  OF  A  BABCOCK  &  WILCOX  BOILER  WITH  LIQUID  FUEL 

Reprinted  from  the  Journal  of  American  Society  of  Naval  Engineers, 
May,     191 1     (Vol.     xxiii). 


From  the  Board's   Report 

This  test  was  conduetcd  by  a  Board  composed  of  Captain  C.  A.  Carr,  U.  S.  N, 
and  Lieutenant-Commanders  J.  K.  Robison  and  John  HalHgan,  Jr.,  U.  S.  N. 

The  Board  assembled  at  the  works  of  The  Babcoek  &  Wilcox  Company, 
Bayonne,  N.  J.,  about  10  a.m.,  November  28,  1910.  The  Board  examined  the 
test  boiler  and  its  connections  for  water  and  steam  tightness,  the  arrangements 
for  measuring  water  and  oil  and  the  apparatus  for  taking  data.  All  of  these 
were  found  satisfactory,  and  the  tests  were  proceeded  with  at  once.  In  all  these 
tests  oil  was  used  as  a  fuel. 

Civilian  assistants  from  the  office  of  the  Inspector  of  Machinery,  Bayonne, 
N.  J.,  were  detailed  for  the  purpose  of  taking  data.  Another  set  of  observers 
was  furnished  by  The  Babcoek  &  Wilcox  Company  who  took  data  independently. 
The  data  taken  by  the  two  sets  of  observers  were  compared,  so  that  any  errors 
in  reading  were  corrected  at  once. 

The  boiler  tested  was  of  the  t^^pe  installed  on  the  U.  S.  S.  "Wyoming"  and 
U.  S.  S.  "Arkansas,"  and  is  the  same  which  was  tested  June  13  to  June  20,  1910, 
during  which  tests  coal  was  used  as  a  fuel.  No  changes  have  been  made  in  the 
design  of  the  boiler  except  for  the  removal  of  the  grate,  the  bricking  over  of 
the  ash  pans  and  the  sides  up  to  the  side  boxes,  and  the  necessary  changes  in 
the  furnace  front  incident  to  the  installation  of  the  oil-burning  apparatus. 

The  following  particulars  apply  to  the  installation  for  burning  oil: 

Type  of  boiler Babcoek   &   Wileox 

Total  heating  surfaee,  square  feet 2,571 

Volume  of  furnaee,  cubie  feet 217 

Area  of  eross-section  smokepipe,  square  feet 19-63 

Height  of  smokepipe  above  furnace,  feet 100 

Fuel  used Crude  oil  from  Gulf  Refining  Company 

Kind  of  draft Closed  fireroom  and  jet  in  smokepipe 

Number  of  burners 11 

Type  of  burner  Peabody  Mechanical  Atomizer 

For  convenience  in  referring  to  burners  in  use  during  the  different  tests, 
they  are  numbered  from  left  to  right  in  each  row  consecutively,  the  left-hand 
burner  in  the  upper  row  being  No.  i. 

General  Arrangement. — The  arrangement  of  the  apparatus  used  in  mak- 
ing these  tests  is  shown  on  the  attached  sketch.  The  arrangement  for 
supplying  forced  draft  is  also  shown  on  this  sheet.  The  blower  for  supplying 
forced  draft  was  driven  by  a  vertical  steam  engine  through  a  belt.  The  air  duct 
discharged  at  the  floor  line  of  the  fireroom  at  the  back  of  the  boiler  against  a 
vertical  baffle  wall  that  deflected  the  air  upward.  The  main  steam  pipe  con- 
nected to  the  main  steam  pipe  of  the  power  house  and  by  a  bleeder  to  the  atmos- 


1 88 


pheric  discharge,  terminating  in  a  three-branch  muffler.  The  discharge  to  the 
power-house  main  and  to  the  bleeder  were  controlled  by  stop  valves  with 
extension  stems  to  the  fireroom  floor. 

Feed  Heater. — A  Reilly  feed  heater  was  used  for  heating  the  feed.  A  branch 
pipe  from  the  main  steam  pipe  led  to  the  feed-water  heater  for  supplying  the 
necessary  steam.  The  pressure  of  steam  in  the  feed-water  heater  shell  was  regu- 
lated by  a  valve  in  the  steam  pipe  to  the  heater.  This  feed  heater  was  in  use 
during  all  the  tests  except  for  about  42  minutes  in  test  No.  2,  when  the  auxiliary 
feed  pipe  was  used,  owing  to  a  temporary  derangement  of  the  main  feed  pump. 
The  auxiliary  feed  pump  took  weighed  water  from  the  main  feed  the  same  as 
the  regular  pump.  The  feed  heater  was  tested  before  and  after  the  tests  under  a 
water  pressure  of  220  pounds  and  was  found  tight. 

Steam  Jet. — A  pipe  led  from  the  main  steam  pipe  to  a  jet  in  the  base  of  the 
smokepipe,  the  amount  of  opening  being  regulated  by  a  valve.  This  jet  was 
used  for  increasing  the  draft,  as  noted  in  the  log  of  the  tests. 

Smokepipe. — The  smokepipe  was  of  sheet  steel,  19.63  square  feet  area  of 
cross-section,  and  100  feet  in  height  above  the  furnace.  There  was  a  damper  in 
the  smokepipe,  which  was  wide  open  during  all  the  tests. 

The  discharges  from  the  surface  and  bottom  blow  valves  led  into  a  pipe 
which  led  outside  of  the  building  and  the  end  of  which  was  open.  A  slight  leak 
was  found  at  the  end  of  this  pipe  soon  after  starting  test  No.  i ,  which  could  not 
be  stopped  by  setting  down  on  the  blow  valves,  and  the  end  of  the  pipe  was 
therefore  plugged,  insuring  tightness.  It  was  examined  during  every  succeeding 
test  and  no  further  leaks  occurred. 

Thermometers  were  placed  in  the  main  feed  pipe  as  near  the  boiler-feed 
stop  valve  as  possible,  and  in  the  oil-pressure  pipe  near  the  burners,  and  a  nitrogen 
filled  thermometer  in  the  uptake  for  obtaining  the  temperature  of  the  escaping 
gases.  Thermometers  were  also  hung  in  the  fireroom  and  outside  the  testing 
room  for  observing  the  temperatures  of  the  air. 

The  draft  pressure  was  taken  through  a  tube  in  the  highest  dusting  door  of 
the  last  gas  passage.  In  tests  Nos.  4,  5,  and  6,  it  was  also  taken  through  a  tube 
in  the  lowest  dusting  door  of  the  first  gas  passage.  The  air  pressure  in  the  fire- 
room was  also  measured  by  an  air-pressure  gauge  hung  on  the  bulkhead  of  the 
testing  room. 

Gas  Analysis. — An  Orsat  apparatus  for  making  analyses  of  uptake  gases 
was  located  in  a  small  booth  adjacent  to  the  test  room.  Gas  samples  were  taken 
from  the  uptake  by  means  of  a  i^-inch  pipe  leading  to  the  gas-analysis  apparatus. 
Samples  of  gas  were  taken  at  frequent  intervals  by  the  chemist  of  The  Babcoek 
&  Wilcox  Company.  The  results  of  the  analyses  were  immediately  reported  to 
the  company's  engineer  for  his  information. 

Method  of  Weighing  Oil. — ^The  arrangement  of  the  oil- feeding  apparatus  is 
shown  on  the  diagram.  Two  barrels  for  receiving  and  weighing  oil  were  mounted 
on  platform  scales.  These  scales  were  examined  before  and  after  the  tests  for 
correctness,  and  were  checked  during  the  tests  by  weighing  empty  barrels.  Oil 
was  run  into  these  barrels  for  weighing  direct  from  the  tank  car  in  which  it  was 
received  at  the  works.  The  flow  of  oil  was  assisted  by  a  small  pump,  the  location 
of  which  is  shown  on  the  sketch.     After  being  weighed  the  oil  was  run  into  one 

189 


r 


190 


of  the  two  receiving  barrels  shown.  These  two  barrels  were  connected  at  the 
bottom  by  a  4-inch  pipe,  the  oil-feed  suction  being  led  into  the  second  barrel. 
This  second  barrel  also  received  the  overflow  oil  from  the  relief  valves  of  the  oil- 
pressure  pump.  From  the  top  of  this  barrel  the  height  of  the  oil  was  measured 
by  a  gauge,  to  determine  the  quantity  of  oil  burned.  From  the  pressure  pump 
the  oil  passed  through  strainers  to  the  oil  heater.  A  pressure  gauge  and  a  ther- 
mometer were  fitted  in  this  room  on  the  oil-supply  pipe  for  convenience  in  regu- 
lating the  temperature  and  pressure  of  the  oil.  The  quantity  of  oil  burned 
could  be  determined  at  any  instant  by  measuring  the  level  of  oil  in  the  barrel. 
At  half-hour  intervals  the  quantity  of  oil  was  checked  up. 

Method  of  Weighing  and  Pumping  Water. — The  arrangements  for  weighing 
feed  water  consisted  of  a  rectangular  feed  tank  on  top  of  which  were  located  two 
weighing  tanks  mounted  on  platform  scales.  These  scales  were  tested  before 
and  after  the  tests  and  the  weights  of  empty  tanks  also  served  as  a  check.  The 
water  was  run  from  the  city  main  into  the  weighing  tanks  and  after  being  weighed 
was  run  into  the  feed  tank.  The  feed  tank  was  fitted  with  a  gauge  glass  on  which 
the  height  of  water  at  the  start  was  marked.  By  regulating  the  flow  of  water 
from  the  weighing  tanks  the  quantity  of  water  used  during  any  time  could  be 
determined.  This  feed  tank  had  suctions  to  main  and  auxiliary  feed  pumps 
and  also  received  the  overflow  from  the  relief  valves  of  these  pumps.  The  main 
feed  pump  discharged  through  the  feed-water  heater  to  the  main  feed  valve  on 
the  boiler.  All  feed  piping  was  where  it  could  be  seen,  and  no  leaks  took  place 
during  any  of  the  tests.  A  steam  gauge  and  a  water  gauge  indicating  steam  pres- 
sure and  water  level  in  the  boiler  were  located  at  the  feed  pump  for  assisting  in 
pump  regulation  and  in  the  maintenance  of  a  constant  feed  supply.  At  the  end 
of  each  half  hour  the  actual  amount  of  water  fed  to  the  boiler  was  checked  up. 

Quality  of  Steam. — For  observing  the  quality  of  the  steam  generated,  a 
Barrus  throttling  calorimeter  was  fitted  on  a  branch  from  the  main  steam  pipe 
at  a  point  18  inches  from  the  steam  drum.  The  collecting  nozzle  was  of  standard 
pattern.  The  calorimeter  was  calibrated  after  the  tests  by  taking  readings  with 
the  pressure  both  rising  and  falling  with  no  steam  leaving  the  boiler  except  through 
the  calorimeter.  The  calorimeter  thermometers  and  feed-water  thermometer 
were  compared  with  a  standard  thermometer  after  the  tests,  and  readings  were 
corrected  as  necessary.  From  these  standard  readings  the  amount  of  moisture 
in  the  steam  was  determined  from  the  formula : 

Q  =~^ J X  100; 

in  which  Q  =  percentage  of  moisture;  T  =  calibration  reading  of  the  lower 
thermometer;  /  =  test  reading  of  lower  thermometer;  L  =  latent  heat  of  steam 
at  boiler  pressure. 

Quality  of  Oil  Used. — The  oil  used  was  Texas  crude  furnished  by  the  Gulf 
Refining  Company,  Samples  of  oil  were  taken  direct  from  the  cars,  and  the 
characteristics  of  the  oil  were  determined  by  a  laboratory  test  made  by  the  chemist 
at  the  Navy  Yard,  Washington,  D.  C.  Oil  from  car  No.  i  was  used  in  test  Nos. 
I,  2,  3,  and  4.  Oil  from  car  No.  2  was  used  in  tests  Nos.  5  and  6.  The  analysis 
of  the  oil  was  as  follows: 

191 


192 


Car  No.  i 

Car  No.  2 

Character  of  oil 

British  thermal  units  per  pound   . 
Percentage  of  moisture  in  oil 

"             "  silt  in  oil  . 
Specific  gravity  at  60  degrees  F.  . 

Flash  point,  degrees  F 

Burning  point,  degrees  F.       .        .        . 

Heavy  and  viscid 
19,291 
trace 
under i 
.9322 
295 
295 

Heavy  and  viscid 
19,086 
trace 
under  i 
.9322 
295 
295 

The  method  of  conducting  tests  was  as  follows: 

The  steam  was  brought  to  the  desired  pressure  and  the  boiler  was  kept  in 
use  long  enough  to  heat  all  parts  thoroughly  and  to  bring  all  conditions  approxi- 
mately to  those  under  which  it  was  desired  to  run  the  test.  All  observers  were  then 
called  together  and  their  watches  were  set  to  agree  with  the  watch,  used  by  the 
Board.  A  time  was  set  for  starting  the  test,  and  the  observers  were  sent  to  their 
stations,  and  at  the  time  set  the  level  of  water  in  the  boiler,  in  the  feed  tank,  and 
of  oil  in  the  feed  barrel  was  noted.  Data  were  observed  at  fifteen-minute  inter- 
vals. A  few  minutes  before  the  time  set  for  ending  the  test  all  observers  were 
notified  when  to  take  the  final  observation.  The  character  of  the  smoke  was 
observed  by  a  member  of  the  Board  and  is  marked  on  a  scale  of  5,  in  which  5 
denotes  dense  black  and  i  a  slight  haze.  Impeller  boxes  of  burners  not  in  use 
during  any  of  the  tests  were  blanked  off  by  asbestos  board.  The  boiler  casing 
was  kept  as  nearly  tight  as  possible.  It  was  necessary  to  replace  one  burner 
during  the  tests,  and  this  was  done  in  less  than  a  minute.  A  small  piece  of  waste 
was  found  in  a  groove  in  the  washer  of  the  defective  burner. 

Test  No.  I  at  13.69  pounds  of  oil  per  hour  per  cubic  foot  of  furnace  volume. 
Capacity  test. — Test  begun  at  11  a.m.  and  finished  at  i  p.m.,  November  28,  1910. 
Weather,  overcast.  Steam  jet  in  use  during  test.  All  burners  in  use.  Rate  of 
evaporation  from  and  at  212  degrees  F.  per  pound  of  oil:  13.70  pounds. 

Test  No.  2  at  7.85  pounds  of  oil  per  hour  per  cubic  foot  of  furnace  volume. — 
Test  begun  at  2  :o5  p.m.  and  finished  at  5  :o5  p.m.,  November  28,  1910.  Weather, 
overcast.  Burners  2,  4,  5,  7,  8,  9,  10,  and  11  in  use.  Rate  of  evaporation  from 
and  at  212  degrees  F.  per  pound  of  oil:  14.37  pounds. 

Test  No.  J  at  5.54  pounds  of  oil  per  hour  per  cubic  foot  of  furnace  volume. — 
Test  begun  at  9:40  A.M.  and  finished  at  12:40  p.m.,  November  29,  1910.  Weather, 
overcast  and  raining.  Burners  i,  6,  7,  and  10  in  use.  Rate  of  evaporation  from 
and  at  212  degrees  F.  per  pound  of  oil:  15.72  pounds. 

Test  No.  4  at  3.07  pounds  of  oil  per  hour  per  cubic  foot  of  furnace  volume. — 
Test  begun  at  i :  25  p.m.  and  finished  at  5 :  25  p.m.,  November  29,  1910.  Weather, 
overcast  and  raining.  Burners  i,  3  and  6  in  use.  Rate  of  evaporation  from 
and  at  212  degrees  F.  per  pound  of  oil:  15.86  pounds. 

The  above  tests  were  concluded  on  November  29,  1910,  and  the  Board 
dissolved.  Upon  working  up  the  data  of  the  above  tests  roughly  it  was  found 
that  test  No.  2  did  not  give  the  efficiency  equal  to  that  which  would  have  been 
expected  from  points  in  a  curve  obtained  from  results  of  the  other  three  tests. 
On  this  account  two  additional  tests  were  made  by  the  senior  member  of  the 


193 


194 


Board,  the  civilian  assistants  of  the  Inspector  of  Machinery  being  present  to 
take  data.     The  results  of  these  two  tests  are  included  in  the  report  of  the  Board. 

Test  No.  5  at  8.86  pounds  of  oil  ])er  hour  i)cr  cubic  foot  of  furnace  volume. — • 
Test  begun  at  10:40  A..M.and  finished  at  i  :40  p.m.,  November  30,  1910.  Weather, 
clear.  Burners  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  8  and  10  in  use.  vSteam  jet  in  use  at  intervals. 
Rate  of  evaporation  from  and  at  212  degrees  F.  per  pound  of  oil:  14.12  pounds. 

Test  No.  6  at  8.97  pounds  of  oil  per  hour  per  cubic  foot  of  furnace  volume. 
— Test  begun  at  10  a.m.  and  finished  at  i  p.m.,  December  3,  1910.  Weather, 
clear.  Burners  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  8  and  10  in  use.  Steam  jet  slightly  open  during 
run.  Rate  of  evaporation  from  and  at  212  degrees  F.  per  pound  of  oil:  15.44 
pounds. 

All  conditions  of  the  above  tests  were  regulated  by  men  in  the  employ  of 
The  Babeock  &  Wilcox  Company  who  had  been  employed  on  this  boiler  for  some 
time,  making  preliminary  tests,  and  they  were  expert  in  handling  this  system  of 
burning  oil. 

While  the  conditions  existing  were  regulated  by  skilled  men,  the  supervision 
of  the  Board  was  rigid,  and  the  results  obtained  can  be  relied  upon. 

The  Board  has  no  knowledge  of  authenticated  tests  of  fuel-oil  burning  in 
which  a  boiler  has  been  forced  to  the  degree  shown  by  Test  No.  i ,  or  in  which  an 
efficiency  as  high  as  that  shown  by  Tests  Nos.  3  and  4  has  been  attained.  The 
results  of  the  tests  are,  therefore,  considered  to  be  particularly  impressive  as 
indicating  a  material  advance  in  the  art  of  fuel-oil  burning  with  mechanical 
atomizing  burners.  The  variations  in  efficiency  shown  by  Tests  Nos.  5  and  6 
indicate  the  careful  adjustment  of  firing  conditions  that  is  necessary  in  order  to 
obtain  the  highest  efficiency  when  burning  fuel  oil. 

The  tests  bring  out  the  desirability  of  making  gas  analysis  at  frequent  inter- 
vals when  burning  oil;  also  of  watching  the  temperatures  of  the  up-take  closely. 
From  the  observation  of  the  Board  during  these  tests  the  character  of  the  smoke 
was  also  an  excellent  guide  to  the  results  which  were  being  obtained  at  any  time. 
Changes  in  conditions  were  noted  by  the  character  of  the  smoke  before  they  were 
apparent  from  the  gas  analysis.  In  Tests  3,  4  and  6  the  character  of  the  smoke 
was  kept  practically  constant.  It  appears  that  the  best  results  were  obtained 
with  the  character  of  the  smoke  between  i  and  ij/^  on  the  scale  used,  and  the 
corresponding  percentage  of  CO 2  in  up-take  gases  was  about  12  per  cent. 

The  Board  was  particularly  impressed  with  the  excellent  results  obtained 
with  this  boiler  under  the  maximum  rate  of  combustion,  Test  No.  i,  which  gives 
a  combustion  of  13.69  pounds  of  oil  per  cubic  foot  of  furnace  volume.  This  is 
the  equivalent  of  about  75.34  pounds  of  coal  per  square  foot  of  grate  area  in  the 
same  boiler  when  burning  coal.  The  boiler  in  this  test  steamed  freely  with  a 
very  slight  increase  in  the  wetness  of  steam,  and  the  falling  off  of  efficiency  was 
small  for  a  rate  of  combustion  much  above  the  maximum  ordinarily  used  on 
boilers  of  the  Navy  under  forced-draft  conditions. 

After  all  the  tests  were  completed  the  boiler  was  opened,  cleaned  and  thor- 
oughly inspected  for  deterioration.  No  tubes  showed  any  signs  of  distortion, 
and  all  tubes  and  headers  were  free  of  blisters.  All  baffles  were  in  good  con- 
dition and  properly  placed. 


195 


196 


TABLE  XXIII 
OIL  TESTS  OF  BABCOCK  &  WILCOX  MARINE  BOILER 


Number  of  test 
Date  of  test.    . 


Duration  of  test,  hours 

Kind  of  oil 

Oil  burner  used  .... 
State  of  weather  .  .  . 
Number  of  burners  in  use 

Average  Pressures 

Steam  pressure  by  gauge, 
lbs 

Oil  pressure  by  gauge,  lbs . 

Draft  pressure  in  fire- 
room,  inches  of  water 

Draft  pressure  in  furnace. 
Pass.  I,  inches  of  water 

Draft  pressure  near  up- 
take, inches  of  water 

Average  Temperatures 

Outside  air,  dgs.  F.     .    . 

Fireroom,  dgs.  F.    .    .    . 

Steam  (at  gauge  pressure, 
tables),  dgs.  F.     .    .    . 

Oil,  dgs.  F 

Feed  water  entering  heat- 
er, dgs.  F 

Feed  water  entering  boiler 
dgs.  F 

Chimney  gases,  dgs.  F.  . 

Oil 

Weight  of  oil  used  during 
trial,  lbs 

Steam 

Quality 

Percentage  of  moisture  . 

Smoke,  scale  of  5    ... 


I 

Nov. 
28,  '10 


Pea 
Overcast 
II 


209.9 
191. 1 

2.60 


4-83 


45-5 
71. 1 

391-5 
175-3 

47 

168.6 
771 


5,943 


99.189 
.811 


2 

Nov. 
28.  '10 


body 
Overcast 
8 


210.4 

188.8 


1.69 


45 
75-2 

391-7 
183.4 

47 

160.9 
666 


5,11- 


99.290 
.710 

1-5 


3 

Nov. 
29,  '10 

3 
Texas 

mech 
Rain 
4 


210.7 
175-6 


1.64 


43 
70 

391.8 
184.0 

47 

201.0 
533 


3,605 


99-837 
.163 

1-3 


4 

Nov. 

29,  '10 

4 
crude 
anical 
Rain 
3 


212 
131-3 

•33 

•65 

.72 


46 
79 

392-3 
210.1 

47 

211. 2 
447 


2,665 


99.891 
.log 

1-5 


5 

Nov. 

30,  '10 

3 

atom 
Clear 


214.8 
153-2 

1.97 

1-35 

2.58 


43 
79 

393-4 
199.0 


46 

185.6 
702 


5,767 


99.782 
.218 

2-3 


6 

Dec. 
3,  '10 
3 

izers 
Clear 


214.8 
171.8 

1.64 

1.65 

2.79 


76 

393-4 
195-7 

46 

182.8 
630 


5,840 


99-835 
.165 

I-I5 


197 


TT^ip 


198 


OIL  TESTS  OF  BABCOCK  &  WILCOX  MARINE  BOILER— Continued. 


Number  of  test    .... 
Water 

Total  weight  of  water  fed 
to  boilers  corrected  for 
inequality  of  water  level 
and  steam  pressure  at 
beginning  and  end  of 
test,  lbs 

Equivalent  weight  of 
water  evaporated  into 
dry  steam,  lbs. .    .    . 

Factor  of  evaporation 

Equivalent  weight  of 
water  evaporated  into 
dry  steam  from  and  at 
212°  F.,  lbs 

Oil  Fuel  per  Hour 

Oil  per  hour,  lbs.       .    .    . 
Oil  per  hr.  per  cubic  ft. 

furnace  volume,  lbs.   . 
Oil  per  hr.  per  square  ft. 

heating  surface,  lbs.    . 
Oil  per  hr.  per  Ijurner,  lbs . 
Equivalent  to  coal  per  sq. 

ft.  of  G.  S.,  lbs.   .    .    . 

Water  per  Hour 

Feed  water  per  hour,  lbs. 
Water  per  hour,  corrected 

for  quality  of  steam, lbs. 
Equivalent      evaporation 

from  and  at  212°  F.  per 

hour,  lbs 

Equiv.  evaporation  from 

and  at  212°  F.  persq.  ft. 

of  heating  surface,  lbs. 
Equiv.  evaporation  from 

and  at  212°  F.  per  cu. 

ft.  of  furnace  ^''ol.,  lbs. 

Economic  Results 

Water  evaporated  per  lb. 

oil,  lbs 

Equiv.  evaporation  from 

and  at  212°  F.  per  lb. 

oil,  Us 

Chiitiuey  Gas  Analysis 

Carbon  dioxide  (CO  2)  p.  c. 
Oxygen  (O),  per  cent. 
Carbon   monoxide    (CO), 

per  cent 

Nitrogen  (N),  percent.  . 

Efficiency 
Efficiency  of  boiler      .    . 


74,898 


74.291 

1.096 


81,423 

2,972 

13-69 

1-156 
270.2 

75-34 


449 
146 

712 

15-83 
187.60 

12.60 
13.70 


9-85 
6.46 

.01 

83.68 


69.29 


67,036 

66,561 

1. 1 04 


•3,483 

1,704 

7-85 

.663 
213 

37-45 

22,345 

22,187 

24,494 
9-53 
112.87 

13. II 
14-37 


9.26 
7.68 

.00 
83.06 


72.68 


53,464 


40,096 


53,376  40,185 

1.062  1-05; 


1,202 
5-54 

•467 
300.5 

28.34 


666 
3-07 
■259 

222 

16.13 


17,821    10,024 
17,792   [10,046 


18,895 
7-35 
87.06 

14-83 
15-72 


11-57 
4-50 

.04 
83.89 


79-50 


10,569 
4.11 
48.70 

15-04 
15.86 


11.86 
4.08 

.04 
84.02 


75,714     83,573 


75,549     83,435 

1.078     1. 08 1 


56,685  42,276  81,449 


80.21 


1,922 
8.86 

-747 
240.3 

43-96 


90,193 

1,947 
8.97 

-757 
423-4 

46.14 


25,238  27,858 

25,183  27,812 


27,149 
10.56 
125.10 

13-13 
14.12 


10.71 
5-18 

.02 
84.09 


71.41 


30,064 
11.69 
138.53 

14-31 
15-44 


10.94 

4-73 

.00 
84-37 


78.08 


199 


LIST  OF  VESSELS 


FITTED  WITH  BABCOCK  &  WILCOX  BOILERS 
VESSELS  BELONGING  TO  NA  VIES 


Name 


No. 

of 

Boil- 


Indi- 
cated 
Horse- 
power 


Owner 


Gunboat 
Cruiser  " 
Gunboat 
Torpedo- 
Cruiser  ' 
Monitor 
Monitor 
Monitor 
Corvette 
Tender  " 
Cruiser  ' 


"Annapolis" 
Chicafjo" 
"Marietta" 
Boat  "  Sheldrake' 
Atlanta"  . 
"Manhattan"     . 
"Canonicus" 
"Mahopac" 
"Ellida"  . 
Arlanza"  . 
'Alert" 


Monitor  "  Cheyenne  " 

Sloop  "  Espiegle"     . 

Fishery  Control  Steamer 
"  Beskytteren  " 

Cruiser  "Cincinnati" 

Cruiser  "  Tacoma  " 

Cruiser  "  Chattanooga  "    . 

Cruiser  "  Galveston  " 

Cruiser  "  Raleigh  "  . 

Cruiser  "Denver"   . 

Cruiser  "  Des  Moines  " 

Cruiser  "  Cleveland  " 

Second  Class  Cruiser  "  Challen- 
ger" 

Sloop  "Odin" 

Battleship  "Nebraska"    . 

Cruiser  "  California  " 

Cruiser  "South  Dakota". 

Cruiser  "  Milwaukee  " 

Cruiser  "vSt.  Louis" 

Second  Class  Cruiser  "  Hermes  " 

Battleship  "Queen" 

First  Class  Cruiser  "Cornwall" 

Cruiser  "  Maryland  " 

Cruiser  "West  Virginia" 

Cruiser  "  Charleston  " 

Monitor  "Amphitrite" 

Battleship  "Rhode  Island" 

Battleship  "New  Jersey" 

Battleship  "King  Edward  VII" 

Battleship  "Dominion"    . 

Battleship  "Commonwealth" 

First  Class  Cruiser  "  Argyll " 


6 
6 
6 
8 
6 
6 
6 

12 

4 

12 

i6 
i6 
i6 
i6 

12 

1.5 
24 
i6 
i6 
i6 
4 

12 
12 
lO 

i6 
i6 
i6 


1300 
5400 
1300 
4000 
3500 
1500 
1500 
1500 
700 
150 
1560 
2450 
1400 

600 
8490 
5420 
5400 
5180 
8160 
6200 
5400 
4680 

12500 
1400 
21900 
29660 
28840 
24500 
27480 
1 0000 
15000 
22000 
28470 
26470 
27510 
1600 
20630 
23570 
10800 
18000 
18000 
16800 


United  States  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
British  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
Norwegian  Navy 
Spanish  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
British  Navy 


Royal  Danish 

United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 


British 
British 
United 
United 
United 
United 
United 
British 
British 
British 
United 
United 
United 
United 
United 
United 
British 
British 
British 
British 


Navy 
Navy 

States 

States 

States 

States 

States 

Navy 

Navy 

Navy 

States 

States 

States 

States 

States 

States 

Navy 

Navy 

Navy 

Navy 


Navy 

Navy 
Navy 
Navy 
Navy 
Navy 
Navy 
Navy 
Navy 


Navy 
Navy 
Navy 
Navy 
Navy 


Navy 
Navy 
Navy 
Navy 
Navy 
Navy 


201 


VESSELS  BELONGING  TO  NAVIES— Continued. 


No. 

Indi- 

Name 

of 
Boil- 
ers 

cated 
Horse- 
power 

Owner 

Battleship  "Hindustan" 

i8 

14400 

British  Navy 

Battleship  "Connecticut' 

12 

20525 

United  States  Navy 

First    Class    Cruiser    "B 

lack 

Prince"    . 

20 

18800 

British  Navy 

First  Class  Cruiser  "Du 

ve  of 

Edinburgh" 

20 

18800 

British  Navy 

Battleship  "Louisiana" 

12 

21350 

United  States  Navy 

Cruiser  "Tennessee" 

16 

27430 

United  States  Navy 

Cruiser  "Washington" 

16 

27460 

United  States  Navy 

Transport  "Volga". 

4 

1600 

Russian  Navy 

Battleship  "Vermont" 

12 

18250 

United  States  Navy 

Gunboat  "Dubuque" 

2 

1220 

United  States  Navy 

Gunboat  "Paducah" 

2 

1270 

United  States  Navy 

Battleship  "NapoU" 

22 

19000 

Italian  Navy 

Battleship  "Britannia" 

18 

14400 

British  Navy 

Battleship  "Hibernia" 

18 

14400 

British  Navy 

Battleship  "Africa" 

18 

14400 

British  Navy 

Battleship  "Indiana" 

8 

9740 

United  States  Navy 

Monitor  "Monterey" 

4 

5240 

United  States  Navy 

Battleship  "Minnesota" 

12 

20570 

United  States  Navy 

Battleship  "Kansas" 

12 

19760 

United  States  Navy 

Battleship  "Idaho" 

8 

14270 

United  States  Navy 

Battleship  "Mississippi" 

8 

13900 

United  States  Navy 

Battleship  "Lord  Nelson 

15 

16750 

British  Navy 

Cruiser  "Minotaur" 

25 

27000 

British  Navy 

Floating  Dock  "Dewey" 

4 

620 

United  States  Navy 

Battleship  "Roma" 

18 

20000 

Italian  Navy 

Battleship  ""Dreadnought 

18 

23000 

British  Navy 

Cruiser  "North  Carolina 

16 

31035 

United  States  Navy 

Cruiser  "Montana" 

16 

28280 

United  States  Navy 

Battleship  "New  Hamps' 

lire"           12 

17270 

United  States  Navy 

Fishery  Control  Steamer 

"Is- 

lands  Falk" 

2 

1200 

Royal  Danish  Navy 

Cruiser  "Indomitable" 

31 

41000 

British  Navy 

Naval  Academy 

I 

400 

United  States  Navy 

Naval  Academy 

I 

725 

United  States  Navy 

Battleship  "Bellerophon' 

18 

23000 

British  Navy 

Battleship  "Superb" 

18 

23000 

British  Navy 

Customs  Cruiser  "Amapc 

i"                  I 

450 

Brazilian  Navy 

Customs  Cruiser  "Baire' 

2 

1200 

Cuban  Navy 

Gunboat  "Gloucester" 

2 

2000 

United  States  Navy 

Battleship  "Massachuset 

ts"                8 

10400 

United  States  Navy 

Battleship  "Michigan" 

12 

16520 

United  States  Navy 

Battleship  "  South  Caroli 

na"             12 

18360 

United  States  Navy 

Armored  Cruiser  "  Sarato 

ga"             12 

17400 

United  States  Navy 

Collier  "Prometheus" 

6 

7500 

United  States  Navy 

Collier  "Vestal"       . 

6 

7500 

United  Ftates  Navy 

Battleship  "Sao  Paulo" 

18 

23500 

Brazilian  Navy 

203 


VESSELS  BELONGING  TO  NAVIES— Continued. 


Name 


Battleship  "Minas  Geraes" 
Tug  "Remorqueur  No.  27" 
Cruiser  "San  Marco" 
Battleship  "Capitan  Prat" 
Battleship  "St.  Vincent" 
Battleship  "Vanguard"    . 
Refrigerating  Vessel  "Celtic" 
Battleship  "Delaware"    . 
Battleship  "North  Dakota" 
Cruiser  "Baltimore" 
Cruiser  "San  Francisco" 
Tender  "Simcoe"    . 
Cruiser  "Indefatigable"  . 
Battleship  "Utah" 
Floating  Dock  (Rio  Janeiro) 
Training  Vessel  "Pomone" 
Gunboat  "Tampico" 
Battleship  "Colossus" 
Battleship  "Florida" 
Floating  Dock  (Pola) 
Battleship  "Maine" 
Battleship  "Orion" 
Mine-laying  Vessel  "Lossc 
Battleship  "Wyoming" 
Battleship  "Arkansas" 
Battleship  "Conqueror" 
Battleship  "Thunderer" 
Battleship  "Rivadavia" 
Battleship  "Moreno" 
Cruiser  "Australia" 
Cruiser  "New  Zealand" 
Floating  Dock  No.  i 
Battleship  "Giulio  Cesare" 
Battleship  "King  George  V" 
S,  S.  "Aberdeen"    . 
Battleship  "Ajax"  . 
Training  Ship  "Essex" 
Battleship  "Texas" 
Cruiser  "Pittsburgh" 
Cruiser  "Colorado" 
Water  Tank  &  Salvage  Vessel 
Gunl)oat  "Morelos" 
Floating  Dock  for  Submarines 
Floating  Dock  for  Destroyers 
Gunboat  "Chio"     . 
Gunboat  "Preveza" 
Gunboat  "Touraque-Reize" 
Gunboat  "Aidin  Reize"  . 


18 


Owner 


Brazilian  Navy 
Italian  Navy 
Italian  Navy 
Chilian  Navy 
British  Navy 
British  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
Canadian  Government 
British  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
Brazilian  Navy 
British  Navy 
Mexican  Navy 
British  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
Austrian  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
British  Navy 
Danish  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
British  Navy 
British  Navy 
Argentine  Navy 
Argentine  Xavy 
British  Navy 
British  Navy 
British  Navy 
Italian  Navy 
British  Navy 
Canadian  Government 
British  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
British  Navy 
Mexican  Navy 
British  Navy 
British  Navy 
Turkish  Government 
Turkish  Government 
Turkish  Government 
Turkish  Government 


204 


VESSELS  BELONGING  TO  NAVIES— Continued. 


Name 


Battleship  "^Mahomet  Reshad 
V"  ... 

Battleship  "  Rio  de  Janeiro" 

Gunboat  "Bravo"  . 

Battleship  "New  York"  . 

Battleship  "Iron  Duke"  . 

Battleship  "Benbow" 

Battleship  "No.  7" 

Cruiser  "Deodoro". 

Cruiser  "Floriano". 

Battle-Cruiser  "Tiger"     . 

Collier  "Arethusa". 

Collier  "Saturn" 

Battleship  "Oklahoma"  . 

Experimental  Boiler 

Floating  Dock 

Battleship  "Queen  Elizabeth" 

Battleship  "Valiant" 

Test  Boiler — Philadelphia  Navy 
Yard 

Gunboat  "Sacramento"  . 

Gunboat  "Wilmington"  . 

Gunboat  "Monocacy" 

Gunboat  "  Palos  "    . 

Fleet  Oiler  "  Kanawha  "    . 

Battleship  "Pennsylvania" 

Destroyer  Tender  "Melville" 

Battleship  "Malaya" 

Battleship 

Battleship 

Battleship 

Floating  Dock 


No. 
of 

Boil- 
ers 


15 
22 

2 

14 

18 
18 
12 

4 

4 

39 

2 

4 

12 

I 

I 


Indi- 
cated 
Horse- 
power 


26500 

32000 

1700 

30000 

29000 

29000 

26000 

3400 

3400 

85000 

1700 

1700 

26000 

1750 
300 


I 

2500 

2 

1000 

4 

1900 

2 

800 

2 

800 

4 

5200 

2 

33000 

2 

4000 

Owner 


Turkish  Government 
Brazilian  Navy 
Mexican  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
British  Navy 
British  Navy 
Austro-Hungary  Navy 
Brazilian  Navy 
Brazilian  Navy 
British  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
French  Navy 
British  Navy 
British  Navy 
British  Navy 

United  States  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
United  States  Navy 
British  Navy 
British  Navy 
British  Navy 
British  Navy 
Austrian  Navy 


GOVERNMENT  VESSELS  OTHER  THAN  NAVY 
REVENUE  CUTTERS 


No. 

Indi- 

Name 

of 
Boil- 
ers 

cated 
Horse- 
power 

Owner 

Revenue  Cutter  "Pamlico" 

I 

900 

United  States  Government 

Revenue  Cutter  "Itasca" 

2 

1620 

United  States  Government 

Revenue  Cutter  "Bear"  . 

I 

800 

United  States  Government 

Revenue  Cutter  "Snohomish" 

I 

850 

United  States  Government 

Revenue  Cutter  "Acushnet" 

2 

1500 

United  States  Government 

205 


GOVERNMENT  VESSELS  OTHER  THAN  NAVY— Continued. 


No. 

Indi- 

Name 

of 
Boil- 

cated 
Horse- 

Name 

ers 

power 

Revenue  Cutter  "Tahoma" 

2 

1750 

United  States  Government 

Revenue  Cutter  "Yamacraw" 

2 

1750 

United  States  Government 

Revenue  Cutter  "  Golden  Gate" 

I 

678 

United  States  Government 

Revenue  Cutter  "Morrill" 

I 

750 

United  States  Government 

Revenue  Cutter  "Unalga" 

2 

1600 

United  States  Government 

Revenue  Cutter  "Miami" 

2 

1600 

United  States  Government 

Revenue  Cutter  "  Calumet" 

I 

620 

United  States  Government 

Revenue  Cutter  "Manning" 

2 

2580 

United  States  Government 

Revenue  Cutter  "McCulloch" 

2 

2Ht,0 

United  States  Government 

ARAIY 


Tender  "Ordnance" 

Tug  "Gen.  R.  M.  Randol" 

Transport  "Burnside" 


United  States  Army 
United  States  Army 
United  States  Army 


VESSELS  LM  THE  MERCANTILE  MARL\E 
ON  OCEAN  CARGO  AND  PASSENGER  SERVICE 


Name 


S.  S.  "  Stadion  "  late  "  Nero 

S.  S.  "Cameo" 

S.  S.  "Orlando"       . 

S.  S.  "Rollo". 

S.  vS.  "Truro" 

S.  S.  "Otto"  . 

S.  vS.  "  Dirigo" 

S.  S.  "Tasso" 

S.  S.  "Charles  Nelson" 

S.  S.  "Kvichak"      . 

S.  S.  "Martello"      . 

S.  S.  "Santa  Clara" 

S.  S.  "Mary  D.  Hume" 

S.  S.  "Rainier." 

S.  S.  "Fair  Oaks" 

S.  S.  "Nome  City" 

S.  S.  "Bowena" 

S.  S.  "Santa  Ana" 

S.  S.  "Shelikof" 

S.  S.  "Coronado" 

S.  S.  "Santa  Barbara" 


Xo. 

of 
Boil- 
ers 


Indi- 
cated 
Horse- 
power 


500 
1300 
1200 
1400 
1500 
1 500 

650 
1500 

850 

650 
2500 
1075 

900 
560 

700 
750 
700 

43<i 
755 
660 


Owner 


N.  P.  Cosmctto,  Constantinople 
Thos.  Wilson,  Sons  &  Co.,  Hull,  Eng. 
Thos.  Wilson,  Sons  &  Co.,  Hull,  Eng. 
Thos.  Wilson,  Sons  &  Co.,  Hull,  Eng. 
Thos.  Wilson,  Sons  &  Co.,  Hull,  Eng. 
Thos.  Wilson,  Sons  &  Co.,  Hull,  Eng. 
Alaska  S.  S.  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Thos.  Wilson,  Sons  &  Co.,  Hull,  Eng. 
Chas.  Nelson,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Alaska  Packers  Co. 
Thos.  Wilson,  Sons  &  Co.,  Hull,  Eng. 
North  Pacific  S.  S.  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
American  Towboat  &  Trading  Co. 
Pollard  Steamship  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Slade  Lumber  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Chas.  Nelson,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Canadian  Pacific  Ry.  Co.,  Victoria,  B.  C. 
Alaska  S.  S.  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Alaska  Pacific  Fisheries,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Pollard  vSteamship  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
J.  R.  Hanify  &  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 


206 


VESSELS  IN  THE  MERCANTILE  MARINE— Continued. 


No. 

Indi- 

Name 

of 
Boil- 

cated 
Horse- 

Name 

ers 

power 

S.  S.  "Spokane" 

4 

3100 

Pacific  Coast  Co. 

S.  S.  "Asuncion"    . 

2 

1500 

Standard  Oil  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

S.  S.  "  Chenalis  "      . 

2 

750 

Sudden  &  Christenson,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

S.  S.  "Ragnvald  Jarl"      . 

2 

1070 

Nordenfjeldske  Dampskibs  Selskab 

S.  S.  "Arctic" 

I 

575 

Union  Lumber  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

S.  S.  "Centralia"     . 

I 

600 

Thomas  Pollard,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

S.  S.  "Orient" 

2 

1000 

De  Montravel  Roche  &  Co.,  Marseilles, 
France 

S.  S.  "Cabrillo"      . 

2 

1700 

Wilmington  Trans.  Co.,  Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

S.  S.  "F.  A.  Kilburn"      . 

2 

1400 

North  Pacific  S.  S.  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

S.  S.  "Mineola"       . 

2 

i860 

Pacific  Coast  Improvement  Co.,  San  Fran- 
cisco (lost  at  sea) 

S.  S.  "Northland" 

2 

1 100 

E.  J.  Dodge,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

S.  S.  "Vanguard"    . 

I 

575 

E.  J.  Dodge,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

S.  S.  "Waialeale"    . 

I 

575 

Inter  Island  S.  S.  Co.,  Hawaii 

S.  S.  "Algerien"      . 

2 

1650 

Caillol,  Duvillard  &  Cie 

S.  S.  "Fred'k  G.  Bourne" 

I 

675 

Newark  Bay  Short  Line,  New  York 

S.  S.  "Daisy  Mitchell"     . 

I 

575 

Freeman  S.  S.  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

S.S."  Ravalli" 

I 

570 

Hammond  Lumber  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

S.  S.  "Yosemite"    . 

2 

850 

C.  R.  McCormick  &  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

S.  S.  "Dolphin"       . 

2 

2160 

Alaska  S.  S.  Co.,  Seattle,  Wash. 

S.S.  "Creole" 

10 

7500 

Southern  Pacific  Co. 

S.  S.  "Wakefield"   . 

I 

150 

Adelaide  Steamship  Co. 

S.  S.  "Intrepid"      . 

I 

450 

J.  D.  Spreckels  &  Bros.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

S.  S.  "Hunter" 

3 

2175 

Newcastle  &  Hunter  River  Steamship  Co. 

S.  S.  "Kolya" 

2 

1000 

Adelaide  Steamship  Co. 

S.  S.  "Joaquin  del  Pielago" 

2 

1000 

Compania  Trasatlantica  of  Cadiz 

S.  S.  "Rani"  . 

I 

300 

Colonial  Sugar  Co. 

S.  S.  "Daisy  Freeman" 

I 

593 

Freeman  Steamship  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

S.  S.  "Yellowstone" 

2 

700 

C.  R.  McCormick  &  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

S.  S.  "Marco  Polo" 

4 

4200 

Navigazione  Generale,  Rome 

S.  S.  "Daisy" 

I 

593 

Freeman  Steamship  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

S.  S.  "Shoshone"     . 

I 

593 

C.  R.  McCormick  &  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

8.  S.  "Paringa" 

2 

1500 

Adelaide  Steamship  Co. 

S.  S.  "  Cristoforo  Colombo" 

4 

4200 

Navigazione  Generale,  Rome 

S.  S.  "Koombana" 

4 

4200 

Adelaide  Steamship  Co. 

S.  S.  "Majestic"      . 

2 

810 

James  Tyson,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

E.xperimental  Boilers 

2 

2000 

John  Brown  &  Co.,  Clydebank,  Scotland. 

S.  S.  "Klamath"      . 

2 

1 100 

C.  R.  McCormick  &  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Channel  Steamer  "  Riviera" 

6 

1 0000 

South-Eastern  &  Chatham  Railway  Co. 

S.  S.  "Morialta"      . 

2 

1700 

Adelaide  Steamship  Co. 

Channel  Steamer  "  Engadine  " 

6 

1 0000 

South-Eastern  &  Chatham  Railway  Co. 

S.  S.  "Warilda"       . 

6 

6500 

Adelaide  Steamship  Co. 

S.  S.  "Wandilla"     . 

6 

6500 

Adelaide  Steamship  Co. 

S.  vS.  "Umberto  I" 

4 

3300 

Orlando  Bros.,  Italy 

S.  S.  "Willochra"    . 

6 

6500 

Adelaide  Steamship  Co. 

S.  S.  "Greenore"     . 

5 

7000 

London  &  North-Wcstern  Ry.,  Irish  Channel 
Service 

207 


VESSELS  IN  THE  MERCANTILE  MARIXE—Contmued. 


No. 

Indi- 

Name 

of 
Boil- 
ers 

cated 
Horse- 
power 

Owner 

s.  s. 

"Princess  Victoria". 

5 

7500 

Portpatrick    &    Wigtownshire    Rys.    Joint 
Committee 

s.  s. 

"Wahine" 

8 

1 0000 

Union  Steamship  Co.  of  New  Zealand 

s.  s. 

"Willamette". 

2 

930 

C.  R.  McCormick  &  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal, 

s.  s. 

"  Samuel  Gadsby  "   . 

2 

800 

Freeman  Steamship  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

s.  s. 

"Avalon" 

2 

800 

Hart  Wood  Lumber  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

s.  s. 

"Davenport" 

2 

900 

J.  S.  Davenport,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

s.  s. 

"Adeline  Smith" 

4 

2300 

C.  A.  Smith  Lumber  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

s.  s. 

"Multnomah" 

2 

900 

C.  R.  McCormick  &  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

s.  s. 

"Merced" 

2 

900 

C.  R.  McCormick  &  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

s.  s. 

"Siskiyou" 

2 

900 

E.  K.  Wood  Lumber  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

s.  s. 

"Stad  Antwerpen"  . 

6 

1 1 000 

Belgian  Government 

s.  s. 

"Villa  de  Liege" 

6 

1 1000 

Belgian  Government 

s.  s. 

II                                   >i 

4 

3300 

Dct    Forencde  Dampskibs-Selskab,  Copen- 

hagen 

s.  s. 

"San  Ramon" 

2 

1250 

C.  J.  Dodge,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

s.  s. 

"Matsonia"    . 

6 

8700 

Matson  Navigation  Co. 

S.  vS. 

"O.M.Clark" 

2 

1080 

Charles  H.  Higgins 

s.  s. 

"Mary  Olson" 

2 

800 

Olson  &  Mahony 

s.  s. 

"Rosalie  Mahonj^"  . 

2 

800 

Olson  &  Mahony 

s.  s. 

"Daisy  Putnam" 

2 

800 

Freeman  Steamship  Co. 

s.  s. 

"Solano" 

2 

800 

Hart  Wood  Lumlier  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

s.  s. 

"Celilo" 

2 

900 

C.  R.  McCormick  &  Co.,  vSan  Francisco,  Cal. 

s.  s. 

14000 

Canadian  Pacific  Ry.  Co. 

s.  s. 

" " 

1 4000     1 

Canadian  Pacific  Ry.  Co. 

s.  s. 

IJOOO 

1 

Union  Steamship  Co.  of  New  Zealand 

VESSELS  ON  GREAT  LAKES  CARGO  SERVICE 


Name 

No. 
of 

Boil- 
ers 

Indi- 
cated 
Horse- 
power 

Owner 

S.  S. 

"Zenith  City" 

2 

2000 

Zenith  Transit  Co.,  Duluth,  Minn. 

S.  S. 

"Turret  Crown" 

2 

1 1 00 

Canadian  Ocean  &  Inland  Navigation  Co., 
Ltd. 

S.  s. 

"Turret  Cape" 

2 

1 1 00 

Canadian  Ocean  &  Inland  Navigation  Co., 
Ltd. 

s.  s. 

"Queen  City" 

2 

2000 

Zenith  Transit  Co.,  Duluth,  Minn. 

s.  s. 

"Crescent  City" 

2 

2000 

Zenith  Transit  Co.,  Duluth,  Minn. 

s.  s. 

"Empire  City" 

2 

2000 

Zenith  Transit  Co.,  Dukith,  Minn. 

s.  s. 

"Turret  Chief" 

2 

1 100 

Canadian  Ocean  &  Inland  Navigation  Co., 
Ltd. 

s.  s. 

"Turret  Court" 

2 

1 100 

Canadian  Ocean  &  Inland  Navigation  Co., 
Ltd. 

s.  s. 

"Superior  Cit}^" 

2 

2000 

Zenith  Transit  Co.,  Duluth,  Minn. 

208 


VESSELS  ON  GREAT  LAKES  CARGO  SERVICE— Continued. 


No. 

Indi- 



Name 

of 
Boil- 

cated 
Horse- 

Owner 

ers 

power 

S.  S.  "Alex.  McDougall" 

2 

2500 

Bessemer  vSteamship  Co.,  Cleveland,  Ohio 

S.  S.  "Prcsque  Isle" 

2 

2000 

Presque  Isle  Transportation  Co.,  Cleveland, 
Ohio 

S.  S.  "Mataafa"      . 

2 

2000 

Minnesota  Steamship  Co.,  Cleveland,  Ohio 

S.  S.  "Maunaloa"   . 

2 

2000 

Minnesota  Steamship  Co.,  Cleveland,  Ohio 

S.  S.  "Malietoa"     . 

2 

2000 

Minnesota  Steamship  Co.,  Cleveland,  Ohio 

S.  S.  "John  W  Gates"      . 

2 

2000 

American  Steel  &  Wire  Co. 

S.  S.  "James  J.  Hill"        . 

2 

2000 

American  Steel  &  Wire  Co. 

S.  S.  "Isaac  L.  Ellwood" 

2 

2000 

American  Steel  &  Wire  Co. 

S.  S.  "Wm.  Edenborn"    . 

2 

2000 

American  Steel  &  Wire  Co. 

S.  S.  "  Harvard  "      . 

2 

2300 

Pittsburgh  Steamship  Co.,  Cleveland,  Ohio 

S.  S.  "Lafayette"    . 

2 

2300 

Pittsburgh  Steamship  Co.,  Cleveland,  Ohio 

S.  S.  "Princeton"    . 

2 

2300 

Pittsburgh  Steamship  Co.,  Cleveland,  Ohio 

S.  S.  "Cornell" 

2 

2300 

Pittsburgh  Steamship  Co.,  Cleveland,  Ohio 

S.  S.  "Rensselaer"  . 

2 

2300 

Pittsburgh  Steamship  Co.,  Cleveland,  Ohio 

S.  S.  "Paraguay"    . 

2 

1500 

Sun  Co.,  Duluth,  Minn. 

S.  S.  "Frank  H.  Peavey" 

2 

2000 

Peavey  Steamship  Co.,  Duluth,  Minn. 

S.  S.  "Geo.  W.  Peavey"  . 

2 

2000 

Peavey  Steamship  Co.,  Duluth,  Minn. 

S.S.  "F.T.Heffelfinger" 

2 

2000 

Peavey  Steamship  Co.,  Duluth,  Minn. 

S.  S.  "F.  B.Wells" 

2 

2000 

Peavey  Steamship  Co.,  Duluth,  Minn. 

S.  S.  "James  H.  Hoyt"    . 

2 

1700 

Provident  Steamship  Co.,  Duluth,  Minn. 

S.  S.  "Orlando  M.  Poe"  . 

2 

2000 

Pittsburgh  Steamship  Co.,  Cleveland,  Ohio 

S.  S.  "Samuel  F.  B.  Morse" 

2 

2000 

Pittsburgh  Steamship  Co.,  Cleveland,  Ohio 

S.  S.  "D.  M.  Clemson"    . 

2 

1700 

Provident  Steamship  Co.,  Duluth,  Minn. 

S.  S.  "D.  G.  Kerr". 

2 

1700 

Provident  Steamship  Co.,  Duluth,  Minn. 

S.  S.  "J.  H.  Reed" 

2 

1700 

Provident  Steamship  Co.,  Duluth,  Minn. 

S.  S.  "H.  G.  Dalton"       . 

2 

1 1 00 

Great  Lakes  &  St.  Lawrence  Transport 
Company 

S.  S.  "John  Crerar" 

2 

HOC 

Great  Lakes  &  St.  Lawrence  Transport 
Company 

S.  S.  "Geo.  C.  Howe" 

2 

1 100 

Great  Lakes  &  St.  Lawrence  Transport 
Company 

S.  S.  "John  Sharpless"     . 

2 

HOC 

Great  Lakes  &  St.  Lawrence  Transport 
Company 

S.  S.  "Augustus  B.  Wolvin" 

2 

2500 

Acme  Steamship  Company,  Duluth,  Minn. 

S.  S.  "James  C.  Wallace" 

2 

2500 

Acme  Steamship  Company,  Duluth,  Minn. 

S.  S.  "Ward  Ames" 

2 

2500 

Acme  Steamship  Company,  Duluth,  Minn. 

S.  S.  "H.  P.  Bope" 

2 

2500 

Acme  Steamship  Company,  Duluth,  Minn. 

OCEAN  GOING  AND  RIVER  DREDGES,  ETC. 


Name 

No. 
of 
Boil- 
ers 

Indi- 
cated 
Horse- 
power 

Owner 

Dredge  "Antleon" 
Dredge  "Volga" 

2 

8 

700 
5600 

N.  S.  W.  Government.     Builders,  W.  Simons 

&  Co.,  Renfrew 
Russian  Government.     Builders,  Societe  J. 

Cockerill,  Seraing 

209 


OCEAN  GOING  AND  RIVER  DREDGES,  ETC.— Continued. 


No. 

Indi- 

Name 

of 
Boil- 

cated 
Horse- 

Owner 

ers 

power 

Dredge  (Gold  Washing)    . 

I 

100 

AI.  Alahozie,  Paris 

Dredge  "Lindon  Bates" 

I 

600 

Indian  Government.  Builders,  Sir  W.  G. 
Armstrong,  Whitvvorth  &  Co.,  Newcastle- 
on-Tyne 

Dredge  "Hercules" 

4 

2600 

Queensland  Government, Brisbane.  Builders, 
Sir  W.  G.  Armstrong,  Whitworth  &  Co., 
Newcastle-on-Tync 

Dredge  "Samson" 

6 

4900 

Queensland  Government, Brisbane.  Builders, 
Sir  W.  G.  Armstrong,  Whitworth  &  Co., 
Newcastle-on-Tyne 

Dredge  "Archer"    . 

4 

2000 

Queensland  Government,  Rockhampton. 
Builders,  Sir  W.  G.  Armstrong,  Whit- 
worth &  Co.,  Newcastle-on-Tyne 

Dredge  "Texas  City" 

I 

1350 

J.  R.  Myers,  Houston,  Texas 

Dredge  "Branckcr" 

I 

300 

Mersey  Dock  &  ILirliour  Board 

Dredge  (Gold  Washing) 

I 

200 

Order  of  Marshall  Sons  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  Gains- 
boro' 

Dredge  "Solvay  No.  i  " 

I 

150 

Solvay  &  Co.,  Paris 

Dredge  "Uncle  Sam" 

I 

312 

American  Dredging  Co.,  San  Francisco 

Oil  Pumping  Plant 

I 

93 

Middle  River  Navigation  Co.,  San  Francisco 

Dredge  "Tule  Queen" 

I 

80 

J.  C.  Franks,  San  Francisco 

Dry  Dock  "Algiers" 

4 

620 

United  States  Navy 

Dredge  " " 

I 

100 

Rindge  Nav.  &  Canal  Co.,  California 

Icc-Breakcr  "Montcalm" 

4 

4500 

Canadian  Government 

Dredge  "Pioneer"  . 

2 

600 

Victorian  Government 

Dredge  "San  Pedro" 

2 

366 

U.  S.  Engineers'  Dcpt. 

Dredge  "Jacksonville"     . 

2 

306 

U.  S.  Engineers'  Dcpt. 

Dredge  "Tethys" 

2 

900 

New  South  Wales  Government 

Dredge  "Foyers" 

4 

2400 

Indian  Government,  Bengal 

Dredge  " " 

2 

432 

South  Pacific  Co.,  San  Francisco 

Dredge  "Lake  Simcoe" 

I 

300 

Lake  Simcoe  Dredging  Companj' 

Dredge  "Elwood"  . 

2 

520 

South  Australian  Government 

Dock  (Floating) 

2 

1000 

Mitsu  Bishi  Dockyard,  Japan 

Dredge  " " 

2 

1400 

For  Sudan 

Dock  (Floating) 

3 

234 

Cia  Peruana  de  Vaporcs  y  Dique  del  Callao 

Dock  (Floating) 

2 

118 

Pcnarth  Dock  Company 

Dredge    "Maryland" 

I 

700 

American  Dredging  Company 

Hopper  Dredge  "Kitsumaru 

No.  I  " 

2 

2000 

L^raga  Dock  Co.,  Japan 

Suction  Dredge  "New  Orleans" 

4 

2500 

United  States  Government  (War) 

Hopper  Dredge  " " 

2 

2000 

Uraga  Dock  Co.,  Japan 

Dredge  "Lyons"     . 

2 

2000 

Crowell-Sherman-Staltcr  Co.,  Lyons,  N.  Y. 

Dredge  No.  15 

2 

1500 

P.  S.  Ross,  Inc.,  Jersey  City,  N.  J. 

Dredge  "Geo.  W.  Allen" 

I 

1350 

Florida  East  Coast  Ry. 

Floating  Crane 

500 

Brazilian  Government 

VESSELS  ON  HARBOR  AND  RIVER  PASSENGER  SERVICE 


Name 


No. 

of 

Boil- 


S.  S.  "  Noref jeld  "    . 
S.  S.  "Ainasis"    late    "Moham- 
med AH" 
P.  S.  "Rameses" 
P.  S.  "Konstantin  Arzibouchev' 
S.  S.  "Zaritzen" 
P.  S.  "Ooonas" 
P.  S.  "Berusa" 
P.  S.  "Serapis" 
P.  S.  "Boyki" 
P.  S.  "Lichay" 

P.  S.  " " 

Fireboat  "W.  S.  Grattan" 
P.  S.  "Ane" 
P.  S.  "  Barquisemeto  " 
P.  S.  "  Crocodile" 
Ferryboat  "San  Jose" 

Ferryboat  "Yerba  Buena" 

P.  S.  "Bhagabatti" 
Ferryboat  "San  Francisco" 

Ferryboat  "Richmond" 
Ferryboat  "Manhattan" 
Ferryboat  "Brooklyn" 
Ferryboat  "Queens" 
Ferryboat  "Bronx" 
S.  S.  "Vaucluse" 

S.  S.  "Pelican" 
P.  S.  "Brighton"     . 
Ferryboat  "Pittsburgh" 
Ferryboat  "St.  Louis" 
Ferryboat  "Hammonton" 
Fireboat  "James  Duane" 
Fireboat  "Thos.  Willett" 
S.  S.  "^— " 
P.  S.  "Gunga" 
P.  S.  "Sarasvati" 
Fireboat  "Cornelius  W.  Law- 
rence" 
Ferryboat  "  Camden  " 
Fireboat  "David  Scannel" 
Fireboat  "Dennis  T.  Sullivan" 
Ferryboat  "Guanabacoa" 
Ferryboat  "No.  i". 
Ferryboat  ' '  Washington 


Indi- 
cated 
Horse- 
power 


225 

375 

600 

300 

125 

650 

125 

350 

350 

60 

900 

350 

100 

1200 

1650 

1650 


2 

450 

2 

3000 

4 

4000 

4 

4000 

4 

4000 

4 

4000 

4 

4000 

I 

500 

I 

100 

2 

800 

4 

3080 

4 

3080 

2 

1 100 

2 

1650 

2 

1650 

I 

100 

2 

500 

2 

500 

2 

1250 

2 

1 1 00 

2 

1800 

2 

1800 

2 

700 

2 

700 

2 

1 1 00 

Owner 


Akers  Mek.,  Christiania 

Thos.  Cook  &  Son,  Cairo 

Thos.  Cook  &  Son,  Cairo 

Nevsky  Mec.  Works,  St.  Petersburg 

Russian  Government 

Thos.  Cook  &  Son,  Cairo 

Sevecke  Steamship  Company 

Thos.  Cook  &  Son,  Cairo 

Russian  Trade  &  Navigation  Co.,  Odessa 

Russian  Trade  &  Navigation  Co.,  Odessa 

Societe  Generale  Mercantile,  Paris 

City  of  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

Nadejda  Steamship  Co.,  St.  Petersburg 

The  Bolivar  Railway  Company 

Bengal  Ry.  (Indian  Government) 

San  Francisco,  Oakland  and  San  Jose  Rail- 
way Company 

San  Francisco,  Oakland  and  San  Jose  Rail- 
way Company 

East  India  Railway  Company 

San  Francisco,  Oakland  and  San  Jose  Rail- 
way Company 

City  of  New  York 

City  of  New  York 

City  of  New  York 

City  of  New  York 

City  of  New  York 

Watson's  Bay  &  South  Shore  Steam  Ferry 
Company 

Adelaide  S.  S.  Company 

Port  Jackson  Co-operative  S.  S.  Co.,  Sydney 

Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company 

Pennsylvania  Railroad  Com.pany 

Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company 

City  of  New  York 

City  of  New  York 

Yokohama  Engine  &  Iron  Works,  Japan 

East  India  Railway  Company 

East  India  Railway  Company 

City  of  New  York 

Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company 

City  of  San  Francisco 

City  of  San  Francisco 

Havana  Central  Railroad  Company 

North  Vancouver  City  Ferries,  Ltd. 

Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company 


.  '^M 


O 


Q  5 
y. 


212 


VESSELS  ON  HARBOR  AND  RIVER  PASSENGER  SERVICE— Continued. 


No. 

Indi- 

Name 

of 
Boil- 

cated 
Horse- 

Owner 

ers 

power 

Ferryboat  "Greycliffe"    . 

I 

300 

Watson's  Bay  &  South  Shore  Ferry  Company 

Fireboat  "Engine  No.  31  " 

I 

648 

City  of  Boston 

Ferryboat  "San  Pedro"   . 

4 

33II 

Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Company 

Ferryboat  "Wildwood"    . 

2 

1 1 00 

Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company 

Ferryboat  "Angel  Island" 

I 

675 

United  States  Government  (Department  of 
Commerce) 

Paddle  Steamer  " "    . 

I 

125 

For  Columbia 

Ferryboat  "  No.  2  " . 

2 

700 

North  Vancouver  City  Ferries,  Ltd. 

Fireboat  "Engine  No.  44" 

I 

950 

City  of  Boston 

Ferryboat  "Alameda" 

4 

3380 

South  Pacific  Railway 

S.  S.  "Kiang  Wha" 

4 

3000 

China  Merchants  Steam  Navigation  Com- 
pany 

S.  S.  "Champion" 

I 

120 

La  Compagnie  Maritime  &  Industrielle  de 
Lewis,  Quebec 

Ferryboat  "Edward  T.  Jeffrey  " 

4 

4430 

Western  Pacific  Railway 

Fireboat  "Wm.  J.  Gaynor" 

2 

1260 

City  of  New  York 

Ferryboat  "Cincinnati" 

2 

1200 

Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company 

Ferryboat  "Bridgeton"    . 

2 

1 100 

Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company 

Ferryboat  "  Salem  " 

2 

1 100 

Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company 

Ferryboat  " "   . 

3 

2000 

City  of  New  York 

Ferryboat  "Santa  Clara" 

4 

3380 

Southern  Pacific  Company 

S.  S.  " " 

1400 

Holland 

S.  S.  "Vanlmhoff" 

1600 

Holland 

S.  S.  "Pynacker  Hardyk" 

1600 

Holland 

S.  S.  "Chauncey  Maples" 

200 

Universal  Mission  to  Central  Africa 

STEAM  TUGS 


Name 


Tug  "Rodney" 
Tug  "Edna  G. " 
Tug  "Duke"  . 
Tug  "Benbow" 
Tug  "Pier" 
Tug  "Hotspur" 
Tug  "Sirdar" 
Tug  "Scott" 
Tug  "Holland" 
Tug  "A.  J.  Beardsley' 
Tug  "Dauntless" 
Tug  "A.  H.  Payson" 
Tug  "No.  2  Ostend" 
Tug  "Arabs" 


No. 

of 

Boil- 

Indi- 
cated 
Horse- 

ers 

power 

I 

200 

I 

550 

I 

120 

I 

200 

I 

400 

2 

800 

2 

800 

2 

800 

2 

800 

I 

450 

2 

1000 

I 

925 

I 

400 

I 

925 

Owner 


S.  Williams  &  Sons,  Dagenham,  Eng. 
Duluth  &  Iron  Range  Ry.  Co.,  Port  Duluth 
S.  Williams  &  Sons,  Dagenham,  Eng. 
S.  Williams  &  Sons,  Dagenham,  Eng. 
New  York  City  Dock  Dept. 
London  &  India  Docks  Joint  Committee 
London  &  India  Docks  Joint  Committee 
London  «S:  India  Docks  Joint  Committee 
London  &  India  Docks  Joint  Committee 
Rodgers,  McMullen  &  McBean,  New  York 
Merchants  Tug  Boat  Co.,  San  Francisco 
Santa  Fe  Terminal  Co.,  San  Francisco 
Belgian  Government 
Pacific  Mail  S.  S.  Co.,  San  Francisco 


213 


STEAM  TUGS— Continued. 


Name 


Tug  "Power" 

Tug  "E.  P.  Ripley" 

Tug  "Navigator" 

Tug"Ajax" 

Tug  "Virgil  C.  Bogue' 

Tug"Alacrty" 

Tug  "Johnstown" 

Tug  "Wilmington" 

Tug  "Harrisburg"  . 

Tug  "Beam" 

Tug  "Beverley" 

Tug  "Walbrook"     . 

Tug  "Teir-el-Mina" 

Tug  "Ludwig  Wiener" 

Tug  "Manhattan" 
Tug  "Kurer" 


No. 

of 

Boil- 


Indi- 
cated 
Horse- 
power 


lOOO 

900 

1300 

825 
925 
II50 
850 
850 

933 
1000 
1000 
1000 

600 

2400 

1090 
150 


Owner 


London  &  India  Docks  Company 
Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Railway 
Associated  Oil  Co.,  San  Francisco 
Southern  Pacific  Co.,  San  Francisco 
Western  Pacific  R.  R.  Company 
Howard  Smith  &  Company 
Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company 
Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company 
Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company 
Port  of  London  Authority 
Port  of  London  Authority 
Port  of  London  Authority 
Egyptian  Ports  &  Lighthouses  Administra- 
tion 
South  African  Railways  (Table  Bay  Harbor 

Dcpt.) 
City  of  Xew  York 
Denmark 


YACHTS 


No. 

Indi- 

Name 

of 
Boil- 
ers 

cated 
Horse- 
power 

Owner 

S.  Y. 

"Reverie" 

I 

275 

F.  G.  Bourne,  New  York 

S.  Y. 

"Eleanor" 

I 

200 

D.  Lancaster,  .Surrey,  Eng. 

S.  Y. 

"Trophy" 

I 

250 

E.  H.  Bennett,  Xew  York 

S.  Y. 

"Seneca" 

I 

450 

Chas.  Fletcher,  Providence,  R.  I. 

S.  Y. 

"Magpie" 

I 

80 

Thomson  &  Campbell 

S.  Y. 

"Onora" 

I 

300 

James  H.  Rosenthal 

S.  Y. 

"lolanda" 

2 

1350 

Morton  F.  Plant,  New  York 

S.  Y. 

"Idalia" 

I 

800 

W.  D.  Hoxie,  New  York 

S.  Y. 

"Sialia" 

2 

1400 

J.  K.  Stewart,  New  York 

S.  Y. 

"Cyprus" 

4 

3500 

D.  C.  Jackling,  Salt  Lake  City 

214 


INDEX 


A 

Acidity  of  boiler-water,  and  methoil 
of  neutralizing    .... 
Air  in  feed-water  as  causing  corro- 
sion     

"Alert,"  U.S.S.,  test  of  boiler  . 
Analysis  of  chimney  gases  by  Orsat 

apparatus 

Analysis  of  chimney  gases: 

U.  S.  S.  "Cincinnati"  test  . 
U.  S.  S.  "  Wyoming,"  coal  test. 
U.  S.  S.  "  Wyoming,"  oil  test  . 
Analysis  of  coal  for  U.  S.  S.  "Wy- 
oming" test       .... 
Analysis  of  sea  water       .... 
"Antilles,"  S.  S. 

Test  of  machinery     .... 
Auxiliary    machinery,    steam    con- 
sumption of,  S.  S.   "Penn- 
sylvania"       


123 
136 

73 

161 

184 
199 

184 
119 

105 


146 


Babcock  &  Wilcox  Boilers — Continued 
In  U.  S.  S.  "Cincinnati" 
In  S.  S.  "Pennsylvania" 
Test  boiler 

Babcock  &  Wilcox  dredge  boiler  . 

Baume  scale,  density  of  oil  by    . 

Boilers,  Babcock  &  Wilcox,  Advan- 
tages of 

Ideal,  charcateristics  of. 
Scotch,  economic  performance  of 
Steam,  efficiency  of   .      .      . 

Boiler  tests,  Scotch      .... 

Boiler,  water-tube,  history  of 

Water-tube,  weight  and    space 
for  various  makes 

Burner,  mechanical  atomizing  (Pea- 
body)  ,  of  Babcock  &  Wilcox 
Co 


151 

143 

179 

41 

64 

9 
29 

58 
70 
58 
II 

39 


67,69 


B 


Babcock  &  Wilcox  boilers: 

Adequate  amount  of  water  .      .  32 

"Alert"  design  (1899)     ...  18 

Care  of 130 

Circulation  in 23, 89 

Combustion  in  furnace  of    .      .  23 

Description  of 21 

Designs  of  1856  and  1868    .      .  13 

Designs  of  1873  and  1881     .      .  14 

Design  of  1895 16 

Design  of  1896 19 

Development  of 13 

End    view,     showing    cleaning 

doors 20 

Front  view  showing  drum  fit- 
tings           24 

Lightness  with  adequate  scant- 
lings .......  32 

Side  casing,  construction  of        .  26 
Babcock  &  Wilcox  boilers  in  steam- 
ships, plans  of: 

"Alert,"  U.  S.  S 134 

"Denver,"  U.  S.  S.    and  Class.  92 

Lake  Cargo  Steamer       ...  138 

"Zenith  City,"  S.  S.       ...  17 
Babcock  &  Wilcox  boilers,  tests  of: 

"Alert,"  U.  S.  S 136 

"Cincinnati,"  U.  S.  S.    .      .      .  151 

Experimental  marine  boiler       .  135 

"Gates,  John  W.,"  S.  S.      .      .  165 

Lake  Cargo  Steamers      .      .      .  141 

"McDougall,  Alex,"  S.  S.,  .      .  147 

"Pennsylvania,"  S.  S.    .      .      .  143 

Sea-going  dredge 163 

"  Wyoming,"  U.  S.  S.  with  coal  169 

"  Wyoming,"  U.S.  S.  with  oil   .  187 
Babcock  &  Wilcox  boilers,  weight  of: 

InU.  S.  S.  "New  Hampshire"  39 

InU.  S.  S.  "Utah"  ....  .39 

InU.  S.  S.  "Alert"  ....  136 


Calorimeter    for    coal,    the    Mahler 

bomb 71,72 

For     determining     dryness     of 

steam 88 

Care  of  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boilers      .  130 

Characteristics  of  ideal  boiler     .      .  29 

"Cincinnati,"  U.  S.  S.,  test  of  boiler  151 
Circulation   in   Babcock   &   Wilcox 

boiler 23, 89 

Cleaning  panel 27 

Coal,  description  of  various  classes    .  47 

Heat  values  of 59 

Coal  and  oil,  relative  cost  and  heat- 
ing effect 66 

Combustion  of  coal,  conditions  for 

efficiency 55 

Combustion  in  furnace  of  Babcock 

&  Wilcox  boiler.      ...  23 
Corrosion,    causes    and    preventive 

measures 119 

"Creole,"  S.  S.  Test  of  machinery  .  105 


D 


Description  of    Babcock  &  Wilcox 

boiler 21 

Dredge  boiler,  Babcock  &  Wilcox      .  41 

Dredge,  sea-going.    Test  of  boiler   .  163 
Drum  fittings.     Babcock  &  Wilcox 

boiler 24 

Drum  head,  forged  steel  ....  25 
Durability    of    Babcock    &    Wilcox 

boilers,  examples  of      .      .  115 

Dusting  panel 27 

E 

Economy  due  to  feed-water  heating  .  97 
Economy  due  to  superheated  steam 

in  marine  practice  ...  104 

Economy  of  evaporation        ...  33 

Economy  of  space 33 


215 


Efficiency,  high,  of  Babcock  &  Wil- 
cox boiler,  reasons  for  .      .  78 

Efficiency  of  steam  boilers     ...  70 

Evaporation,  equivalent,  from  and 

at,  212°  Fahr.      .      .            .  86,  87 

Experimental  marine  boiler,  test  of  135 


Feed- water  heating,  economy  due  to  97 
Firing,  methods  for  various  fuels  .  130 
Forcing,  severe,  ability  to  stand  .  35 
"From  and  at"  212°  Fahr.,  equiva- 
lent evaporation  .  .  .  86, 87 
Fuel,  its  combustion  and  heat  value  47 

Fuel,  oil  as 63 

Fuel  oils,  calorific  value,  density,  etc.  67 

Fuels,  solid,  chemical  composition  of  51 


Gases,  chimney,  analysis  of,  ])y  Orsat 

apparatus 73 

Gases,  chimney,  analysis  of: 

U.  S.  S.  "Cincinnati"  test  .      .  l6l 

U.  S.  vS.  "  Wyoming,"  coal  test  184 

U.  S.  S.  "  Wyoming,"  oil  test  .  199 

Gases  of  combustion,  temperature  of, 

in  Babcock  &  Wilcox  Boiler  154 

"Gates,  John  W.,"  S.  S. 

Test  of  boilers  and  machinery  .  165 

H 

Header,  forged  steel 21 

Headers,  strength  of         ....  30 
Heat-balance,  record  of,  for  tests  of 

U.  S.S.  "Wj^oming"  boiler  185 

Heating  feed-water,  economy  due  to  97 

History  of  water-tube  boiler ...  11 


"  Idalia,"  Steam  Yacht,  test  of  ma- 
chinery      107 

Impeller  or  air  register     ....  68 

Interchangcability  of  parts    ...  35 

K 

"Kansas,"  U.  S.  R. 

Test  of  machinery     ....  107 

L 


Machinerv,  tests  of — Continued 

"Creole,"  S.  S 

"Gates,  John  W.,"  S.  S.      .      . 

"Idalia,"  Yacht  .... 

"Kansas,"  U.  S.  S.         ... 
Lake  Steamers 

"McDougall,  Alex.,"  S.  S.  .      . 

"Michigan,"  U.  S.  S.      .      .      . 

"Alomus,"  S.  S 

"New  Hampshire,"  U.  S.  S.      . 

"Pennsylvania,"  S.  S.    . 

"South  Carohna,"  U.  S.  S. 
Melting  points  of  metals  .... 
"AIcDougah,  Alexander,"  S.  S. 

Test  of  boilers  and  machinery    . 
Melville,  Admiral 

List  of  characteristics  of  ideal 

boiler 

"Michigan,"  U.  S.  S. 

Test  of  maclnnerv     . 
Model  of  Babcock  &  Wilcox  Boiler 

full  size  sectional     . 
Moisture  in  steam,  determination  of 
"Alomus,"  S.  S. 

Test  of  machinery     . 
Alonitors,  U.  S.,  reboilering  . 
Mosher  boiler,  weight  and  space  oc- 
cupied in  U.  S.  S.  "Kear- 
sarge" 

N 

"New  Hampshire,"  U.  S.  vS. 

Test  of  machinery     .... 

Normand  boiler,  weight  and  space 
occupied  in  U.  S.  S. 
"  Chester,"  "Salem,"  and 
"Trippe" 

O 

Oil  and  coal,  relative  cost  and  heat- 
ing effect 

Oil,  density  of,  on  Baume  scale   . 

Oil-burner,  Babcock  &  Wilcox    . 

Oil  Fuel 

Oils,  fuel,  calorific  value,  specific 
gravity,  etc 

Oil  fuel,  liigh  capacity''  test  on  "Ok- 
lalioma"  boiler  .... 

Oil-fuel  tests  on  boiler  for  U.  S.  S . 
"  Wyoming"      .... 

Orsat  apparatus  for  analyzing  chim- 
ney gases      


105 
165 
107 
107 
141 
147 
107 

105 
107 

143 

107 

61 

147 


31 

107 

118 
95 

I  "5 
113 

39 


107 


39 


66 

64 

67,69 

63 

67 

65 

187 

73. 


Lake  Steamers,  6500  ton 

Test  of  machinery     .... 
Lightness    of    Babcock    &    Wilcox 

Boiler 

Lime,  use  of,  to  prevent  corrosion  . 
Liquid  fuel,  advantages  of  .  .  . 
List  of  vessels  fitted  with  Babcock  & 

Wilcox  Boilers   .... 


M 


Machinery,  tests  of 
"Antilles,"  S.  S. 


141 

32 
121 

63 
201 


105 


"Pennsylvania,"  S.  S. 

Test  of  boilers  and  machinery 


R 


Raising  steam  quickly      .... 
Raising  steam,  time  necessary  for,  137, 157, 
Register,  air  (impeller)     .... 
"Reverie,"  Steam  Yacht. 

"  Reverie,"  boiler  of 

Rugged  construction  and  ability  to 
stand  abuse        .... 


143 


33 

175 

68 

15 
51 

35 


216 


S  page; 

Safety  against  explosion  ....  37 

Sea-water,  analysis  of       ....  119 
Side    casing,     Babeoek     &    Wilcox 

boiler 26 

Soda  for  neutralizing  acidity        .      .  123 
"South  Carolina,"  U.  S.  S. 

Test  of  machinery     ....  107 

Steam  calorimeter 88 

Steam  consumption  of  auxiliary 
machinery,  S.  S.  "Penn- 
sylvania"        146 

Steam,  properties  and  laws  of  gene- 
ration        80 

Steam,  saturated,  table  of  pressures, 

temperatures,  etc.   ...  81 
Steam,  saturated,  below  atmospheric 

pressure,  table   ....  83 

Steam,  superheated,  economy  of       .  104 

Stevens'  Boat 11 

Stevens,  John,  boiler 11 

Stevens,  John  Cox,  boiler      ...  12 
Superheated  steam,  economy  due  to, 

in  marine  practice  ...  104 
Superheater,  Babcock  &  Wilcox        .    102,  103 

T 
Tables 

Analysis  of  chimney  gases,   161,  184,  199 
Analysis  of  coal  and  ash,  U.  S.  S. 

"Wyoming"       ....  184 

Analysis  of  sea-water      ...  119 

Calorific  value,  specific  gravity, 

etc.,  of  fuel  oils  ....  67 

Chemical  composition  of  solid 

fuels 51 

Cost,  relative,  of  coal  and  oil      .  66 

Cylindrical  boilers,  performance 

of 58 

Density  of  oil 64 

Factors  of  Evaporation        .      .  87 

Feed-water  heating,  economy  of  97 

Heat  balance,  U.  S.  S.  "  Wyom- 
ing," with  coal  ....  185 
Heating  effect,  relative,  of  coal 

and  oil 66 

Heat  values  of  coal  ....  59 
List  of  vessels  fitted  with  Bab- 
cock &  Wilcox  Boilers  .  201 
Melting  points  of  metals  .  .  61 
Notable  temperatures  of  water  85 
Raising  steam,  record  of,  137,  157,  175 
Saturated  steam,  properties  of  .  81 
Saturated  steam,  below  atmos- 
phere                     83 

Steam    consumption,    auxiliary 

machinery 146 

Superheated    steam,    merchant 

vessels 105 

Superheated  steam,  U.  S.  naval 

vessels 107 

Superheated     steam,     Yacht 

"Idalia" 107 

Temperature  of  fire  ....  61 


Tables — Continued 

Water   between   32°   and    212° 

Fahr 

Weight    of    water    above    200° 

Fahr 

Weight  of  water,  boiler  of  U.  S. 

S.  "Cincinnati" 
Weight   and   spare    of    various 
water- tube  boilers   . 

Temperature  of  fire 

Temperature  of  gases  in  Babcock  & 
Wilcox  Taoiler      .... 
Tests  of  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boilers: 

"Alert,"  U.  S.  S 

"Cincinnati,"  U.  S.  S.    .      .      . 
Experimental  marine  boiler    . 
"John  W.  Gates,"  S.  S. 
Lake  Cargo  Steamers  . 
"AIcDougall,  Alex.,"  S.  S.  .      . 
"Pennsylvania,"  S.  S.    . 

Sea-going  dredge     .... 

"Wyoming,"  U.  S.  S.,  with  coal 

"Wyoming,"  U.  S.S.,  with  oil 

Tests  of  Scotch  boilers     .... 

Thornycroft    boiler,     weight     and 

space  occupied  in  U.  S.  S. 

"Burrows"  and  "  Terry". 


85 

83 

157 

39 
61 

154 

136 
151 
135 
165 
141 

147 
143 
163 
169 

187 
58 

39 


Vessels  fitted  with  Babcock  &  Wil- 
cox boilers,  list  of   .      .      .  201 

W 

Water,  adequate  amount  of,  in  Bab- 
cock &  Wilcox  boiler     .      .  32 

Water  between  32°  and  212°  Fahr., 
table  of  weight  and  heat 
units 84 

Water,  test  for  corrosiveness  of    .      .  124 

Water,  weight  of,  at  various  tem- 
peratures above  200°  Fahr.  83 

Weight  and  space  for  various  water- 
tube  boilers 39 

Weight  of  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boil- 
ers    .      .  39,  136,  143,  151,  179 

Weight  of  water  in  boiler  of  U.  S.  vS. 
"Cincinnati,"  at  various 
heights 157 

White-Forster  boiler,  weight  and 
space  occupied  in  U.  S.  S. 
"Maryant"        ....  39 

"  Wyoming,"  U.  S.  S. 

Test  of  boiler  with  coal  as  fuel.  169 

Test  of  boiler  with  oil  as  fuel    .  187 

Y 

Yarrow  boiler,  weight  and  space  oc- 
cupied in  U.S. S.  "Sterrett"  39 


Zinc,  use  of,  to  prevent  corrosion 


124 


217 


INDEX  TO  ILLUSTRATIONS 


A  PAGE 

'Acushnet,"  U.  S.  Revenue  Cutter  .  172 

'Africa,"  H.  M.  Battleship  ...  188 
'Alert,"  U.  S.  S.,  arrangement  of 

boilers 134 

'Adeline  Smith,"  Lumber  Steamer  .  120 

'Anteleon,"  Hopper  Dredge       .      .  30 

'Argyll,"  H.  M.  Armored  Cruiser  .  196 

'Arkansas,"  U.  S.  Battleship     .      .  10 


"Edna  G.,"  Steam  Tug 
Expander,  tube 


Fire  room  of  U.  S.  S.  "St.  Louis" 
"Florida,"  U.  S.  Battleship  .      . 


131 
132 


74 
22 


B 


Babcock  &  Wilcox  Boiler 

Circulation  in 89 

Design  of  1868 13 

Design  of  1873  and  1881      .      .  14 

Design  of  1895 16 

Design  of  1896 19 

"Alert,"  design    ....      20,56,153 

Dredge  design 42, 43 

End  view,  cleaning  doors     .      .  20 

Front  view 24 

In  U.  S.  Naval  Oil-Fuel  Testing 

Plant 65 

Of  U.  S.  S.  "Cincinnati"     .      .  153 

"Bear,"  U.  S.  Revenue  Cutter    .      .  172,190 

Burner  for  Liquid  Fuel     ....  69 

"Burnside,"  U.  S.  Army  Transport  112 


Gas  Analysis,  Orsat  apparatus  for     . 
"Grattan,  W.  S.,"  Fire  Boat  and  Ice 

Breaker,  Buffalo 
"Greenore,"  Cross-channel  Steamer 


H 


"Hammonton,"  Ferryboat  of  Penn- 
sylvania Railroad    . 

Header,  forged  steel 

"  Hume,  Mary  D.,"  Arctic  Whaler    . 


I 


73 

94 
168 


176 
21 

57 


68 


Impeller  for  liquid-fuel  burner    . 
Installing  boilers  in  vessels,  methods 

of 28,  164 

"Island's    Falk,"    Danish    Fishery 

Steamer 103 


Calorimeter,  coal,  Mahler's  bomb      .  72 

Calorimeter,  steam 91 

"Cincinnati,"  U.  S.  Cruiser              .  152 

"Cincinnati,"  U.  S.  S.,  boiler  of  .  153 
"Charleston,"    U.    S.    First    Class 

Cruiser 38 

Circulation   in    Babcock   &   Wilcox 

boiler 89 

"City  of  Nanaimo,"  Steam  Packet   .  116 

Cleaning  doors 20 

"Colossus,"  H.  M.  Battleship    .      .  194 

"Connecticut,"  U.  S.  Battleship  .  40 
"Creole,"  S.  S.  of  Southern  Pacific 

Co 54 


D 


December  on  Lake  Superior        .      .  79 

"Delaware,"  U.  S.  Battleship     .      .  48 
"Denver,"  Class,  U.  S.  Navy 

Arrangement  of  boiler  rooms    .  92 

"  Dewey,"  U.  S.  Floating  Dry  Dock  36 

Dredge,  "Anteleon" 30 

"Lyons"         46 

"  New  Orleans" 45 

For  Volga  River        ....  44 
Dredge  design  of  Babcock  &  Wilcox 

boiler 42,43 

Drum  fittings 24 

Drum-head,  forged  steel  ....  25 

Dusting-door 27 

Dusting-panel 27 


"Joaquin  del  Pielago,"  S.  S.       .      .  202 

K 

"Kiang-Wha,"  S.  S. 

China  Merchant  Xav.  Co.  .      .  177 


Lake  Cargo  Steamers 

Arrangement  of  boilers  ...  138 

"Lazaro,A.,"  S.  S 198 

"Lord  Nelson,"  H.  M.  Battleship   .  50 

"Louisiana,"  U.  vS.  Battleship    .      .  40 
"Lyons,"   Dredge  for  N.   Y.   State 

Barge  Canal       ....  46 
"McDougall,    Alexander,"    Largest 

Whaleback  Steamer      .      .  148 


M 


Mahler's  Bomb  Calorimeter        .      .  72 

"Mahomet  AH,"  Nile  Steamer  .  98 
"Manhattan,"     N.     Y.     Municipal 

Ferryboat 128 

Man-hole  plate 25 

"Manning,"  U.  S.  Revenue  Cutter.  172 

"Matsonia,"  S.  S.  Fire-room  of        .  178 

"Michigan,"  U.  S.  Battleship  .  .  108 
"Milwaukee,"    U.    S.    First    Class 

Cruiser 38 


218 


"jNIinas  Geracs,"  Brazilian     Battle- 
ship     

"Minnesota,"  U.  S.  Battleship  . 
"  Minotaur,"  H.  M.  Armored  Cruiser 
"Montana,"  U.  vS.  Armored  Cruiser 
"  Montcalm,"  Canadian  Ice  Breaker 
"Moreno,"  Argentine  Battleship 

N 

"Napoli,"  Italian  Battleship 
"Nelson,  Charles,"  Steam  Packet    . 
"New   Hampshire,"   U.    S.   Battle- 
ship     

"New  Orleans,"  U.  S.  Army  Dredge 
"New  York,"  U.  S.  Battleship 
Non-conducting    covering    in    side 

casing 

"North  Carolina,"  U.  S.  Armored 

Cruiser 

"  North  Dakota,"  U.  S.  Battleship    . 

O 

Oil-Fuel,  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boiler 
for,  at  Naval  Testing  Plant 

Oil-Fuel,  burner  for 

Orsat  apparatus  for  gas  analysis 

P 

Plug  extractor 

"Pomone,"  H.  M.  Gunboat 
"Princess  Victoria,"   Cross-channel 
Steamer 


R 


Rail  shipment  of  boilers  . 
"Rainier,"  Steam  Packet 
"Raleigh,"  U.  S.  Cruiser 
"Reverie,"  Steam  Yacht 
"Reverie,"  boiler  of  . 
"Rivadavia,"  Argentine  Battleship 

Riveted  joint 

"Riviera,"  Cross-channel  Steamer 
"Roma,"  Italian  Battleship 


"  St.  Louis,"  U.  S.  First  Class  Cruiser 
"St.  Louis,"  U.  S.  S.,  Fire-room  of 
"San     Marco,"     Italian     Armored 

Cruiser 

"San  Pedro,"  Ferryboat  of  A.  T.  S: 
S.  F.  Railway     .... 
"Santa  Anna,"  Steam  Packet     . 
"Scannell,  David,"  Fire  Boat,  San 

Francisco 

"Shelikoff,"  Steam  Whaler   .      .      . 
vShipmentof  boilers  by  rail     . 
Ships  fitted  with  Babcock  &  Wilcox 
Boilers: 
"Acushnet,"  U.     S.     Revenue 

Cutter 

"Africa,"  H.  M.  Battleship 
"Argyll,"      H.     M.     Armored 

Cruiser 

"Arkansas,"  U.  S.  Battleship   . 


96 
212 
100 

49 

180 

62 


122 

132 

150 

45 


26 

49 

48 


65 
69 

73 


131 

192 


77 
82 

152 

15 
15 
62 

25 
52 
34 


38 
74 

90 

174 
181 

160 

125 

77 


172 
188 

196 
10 


Ships  fitted  with  Babcock  &  Wilcox 
Boilers — Continued 
"Anteleon,"  Sea-going  Dredge.  30 
"Bear,"  U.  S.  Revenue  Cutter     172,  190 
"Burnside,"  U.  S.  Army  Trans- 
port                112 

"Charleston,"  U.  S.  First  Class 

Cruiser 38 

"Cincinnati,"  U.  S.  Cruiser      .  152 
"Colossus,"  H.  M.  Battleship  .  194 
"Connecticut,"   U.   S.   Battle- 
ship      40 

"Creole,"  Passenger  and  Freight 

Steamer 54 

"Delaware,"  U.  S.  Battleship  .  48 

"Edna  G.,"  Steam  Tug        .      .  131 

"Florida,"  U.  S.  Battleship       .  22 

"Grattan,  W.  vS.,"  Fire  Boat    .  94 

"Greenore,"  Cross-channel 

Steamer 168 

"Hammonton,"   Pcnna.   R.   R. 

Ferryboat 176 

"Hume,     Mary     D.,"     Arctic 

Whaler 57 

"  Island's  Falk,"  Danish  Fishery 

Steamer 103 

"Kiang-Wha,"    Chinese    Mer- 
chant Steamer   ....  177 
"  Lazaro  A.,"  Merchant  Steamer  198 
"Lord  Nelson,"  H.  M.  Battle- 
ship      50 

"  Louisiana,"  U.  S.  Battleship  .  40 

"McDougall,   Alex.,"    Whale- 
back  Steamer     ....  148 
"Mahomet  Ali,"  Nile  Steamer  98 
"Manhattan,"  New  York  City 

Ferryboat 128 

"Manning,"     U.     S.     Revenue 

Cutter 172 

"Michigan,"  U.  S.  Battleship  .  108 

"Milwaukee,"  U.  S.  First  Class 

Cruiser 38 

"Minas  Geraes,"  Brazilian  Bat- 
tleship       96 

"Minnesota,"  U.  S.  Battleship  .  212 

"Minotaur,"  H.  M.  Battleship  .  100 

"Montana,"    U.    S.    Armored 

Cruiser 49 

"Montcalm,"     Canadian      Ice 

Breaker 180 

"Moreno,"    Argentine    Battle- 
ship      62 

"Nanaimo,     City    of,"    Steam 

Packet      .     " 116 

"NapoH,"  Italian  Battleship     .  122 
"Nelson,  Chas.,"  Steam  Packet  132 
"New  Hampshire,"  U.  S.  Bat- 
tleship       150 

"New   Orleans,"    U.    S.   Army 

Dredge 45 

"NewYork,"U.S.  Battleship  .  8 
"North   Carolina,"    U.    S.   Ar- 
mored Cruiser    ....              49 
"North  Dakota,"  U.  S.  Battle- 
ship                  48 

"Pielago,    Joaquin    del,"   Mer- 
chant Steamer   ....  202 
"Pomone,"  H.  I\I.  Gunboat      .  192 


219 


Ships  fitted  with  Babcock  &  Wilcox 
Boilers — Continued 

"Princess    Victoria,"    Cross- 
channel  Steamer 

"Rainier,"  Steam  Packet    . 

"Raleigh,"  U.  S.  Cruiser     .      . 

"Reverie,"  Steam  Yacht 

"Rivadavia,"  Argentine  Battle- 
ship     

"Riviera,"            Cross-channel 
Steamer 

"Roma,"  ItaHan  Battleship 

"Saint  Louis,"  U.  S.  First  Class 
Cruiser 

"Santa  Anna,"  Stem  Packet     . 

"San  Marco,"  Italian  Armored 
Cruiser 

"San  Pedro,"  Ferryboat,  Santa 
F^  Railway         .... 

"Scannell,    David,"  Fire  Boat, 
San  Francisco    .... 

"  vShelikoff,"  Steam  Whaler 

"Smith,    Adeline,"    Lumber 
Steamer 

"South  Carolina,"  U.  S.  Battle- 
ship     

"Sullivan,     Dennis    T.,"     Fire 
Boat 

"Superior  City,"  Lake  Steamer 

"Tennessee,"    U;    S.    Armored 
Cruiser 

"Texas,"  U.  S.  Battleship   . 

"Unalga,"  U.  S.  Revenue  Cut- 
ter       

"Utah,"  U.  S.  Battleship    .      . 

"Vanguard,"  H.  M.  Battleship 

"Warilda,"     Australian     Mer- 
chant Steamer   .... 

"Washington,"  U.  S.  Armored 
Cruiser 

"Wolvin,    Augustus  B.,"  Lake 
Steamer         .... 

"Wyoming,"  U.  S.  Battleship 

"Yamacraw,"    U.    S.    Revenue 
Cutter 

"  Zenith  City,"  Lake  Steamer 
Side  casing,  construction  of  . 
"vSouth  Carolina,"  U.  S.  Battleshi] 
Stevens,  John,  Early  Steamer     . 
Stevens,  John,  boiler 


ITO 

82 

15 
62 

52 

34 

38 
181 

90 

174 

160 
125 

120 

108 

162 

84 

156 

8 

172 

22 

200 

142 

156 

126 
10 

172 
114 

26 
108 

II 

II 


Stevens,  John  Cox,  boiler 
"Sullivan,  Dennis    T.,"  Fire   Boat, 
San  Francisco    .... 
"Superior  City,"  Lake  Steamer. 
Superheater,  Babcock  &  Wilcox 


Temperature  of  gases  in  passage 
through  boiler    .... 

"Tennessee,"  U.  S.  Armored  Cruiser 

Testing  Plant  at  Babcock  &  Wilcox 
Works  for  coal  as  fuel 

Testing  Plant  at  Babcock  &  Wilcox 
Works  for  oil  as  fuel     . 

"Texas,"  U.  S.  Battleship     . 


U 


"Unalga,"  U.  S.  Revenue  Cutter 
"Utah,"  U.  S.  Battleship      .      . 


"Vanguard,"  H.  M.  Battleship  . 

W 

"Warilda,"    S.     S.,    in     Australian 

trade 

"Washington,"      U.      S.     Armored 

Cruiser 

Wilcox,  Stephen,  boiler  of  1856  . 
"Wolvin,    Augustus    B.,"    Lake 

Steamer 

Works,  Babcock  &  Wilcox: 

Bayonnc,  N.  J 

Barberton,  Ohio 
Renfrew,  Scotland     . 

Paris,  France 

( )])erhausen,  Germany 
"  Wyoming,"  U.  S.  Battleship   . 

Y 

"Yamacraw,"  U.  S.  Revenue  Cutter 

Z 
"Zenith  City,"  Lake  Steamer  . 


12 

162 
84 


154 
156 

170 

186 


172 


142 

156 
13 

126 

2 

3 
4 

5 

5 

10 


172 


114 


The   Knickerbocker  Press 

(G.    P.    PUTNAM'S  Sons) 

New  York 


Jm^MMi'MiMkm^ 


868799 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


